RUSSIAN—ENGLISH IN WRITING. Советы эпизодическому переводчику. 4-е изд. [Семён Самсонович Кутателадзе] (pdf) читать онлайн

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‘. C. Š“’€’ ‹€„‡

RUSSIAN −→ ENGLISH
IN WRITING
C®¢¥âë
í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ã ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ªã
ˆ§¤ ­¨¥ ç¥â¢¥à⮥,
¨á¯à ¢«¥­­®¥ ¨ ¤®¯®«­¥­­®¥

®¢®á¨¡¨àáª
ˆ§¤ ⥫ìá⢮ ˆ­áâ¨âãâ ¬ ⥬ ⨪¨
2000

“„Š 51:800.61
Š 81.2{7
Š95
Šãâ ⥫ ¤§¥ ‘. ‘.

Russian → English in Writing: ‘®¢¥âë í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ã
¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ªã. | 4-¥ ¨§¤., ¨á¯à. ¨ ¤®¯. | ®¢®á¨¡¨àáª: ˆ§¤-¢®
ˆ­-â ¬ ⥬ ⨪¨, 2000. | iv+195 á.
ISBN 5{86134{084{6.
‘®¡à ­ë ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨¥ ४®¬¥­¤ 樨 ¯® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ã ­ ãç­ëå à ¡®â ­ ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª. à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¨ á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨¥ 㪠§ ­¨ï ¢ë¤ îé¨åáï «¨­£¢¨á⮢ ƒ. ” ã«¥à , .  âਤ¦ ,
. Š¢¥ઠ¨ ¤à. ¨ ᮢ¥âë ­£«®ï§ëç­ëå ¬ ⥬ ⨪®¢ ‘. ƒ®ã«¤ ,
. • «¬®è ¨ . • ©¥¬ .
‚ 㤮¡­®© â ¡«¨ç­®© ä®à¬¥ ¯®¬¥é¥­ë ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ë¥ ¤«ï ¯à®ä¨« ªâ¨ª¨ ®è¨¡®ª á¯à ¢®ç­ë¥ ¬ â¥à¨ «ë ¯® ­ ãç­ë¬ ª®««®ª æ¨ï¬,
⨯¨ç­ë¬ £« £®«ì­ë¬ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï¬, ¯ã­ªâã 樨 ¨ â. ¯. ˆ¬¥¥âáï ¯®¤à®¡­ë© ¯à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì. ‚ ­ áâ®ï饬 4-¬ ¨§¤ ­¨¨ ­¥¬­®£®
à áè¨à¥­ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨© à §¤¥«, ¨á¯à ¢«¥­ë § ¬¥ç¥­­ë¥ ­¥â®ç­®áâ¨.
Š­¨£ ¡ã¤¥â ¯®«¥§­ ¨­â¥à¥áãî騬áï ­£«¨©áª®© £à ¬¬ ⨪®©
¨ â¥å­¨ª®© ­ ãç­®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ .
¨¡«¨®£à.: 103.

−12
Š 1602080000
Ÿ82(03)−2000 ¥§ ®¡ê.

ISBN 5{86134{084{6

c
°
c
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Šãâ ⥫ ¤§¥ ‘. ‘., 2000
ˆ­áâ¨âãâ ¬ ⥬ ⨪¨
¨¬. ‘. ‹. ‘®¡®«¥¢ ‘Ž €, 2000

—¨â ⥫î,
with compassion and hope

ƒ« ¢ 1
Š®¬ã ¤à¥á®¢ ­ë í⨠ᮢ¥âë?
\Advice is seldom welcome...."
Earl of Chester eld

ý...ªâ® á«ãè ¥â ᮢ¥â , â®â ¬ã¤àþ.

à¨âç¨, £«. 12:15

ˆ§ § £®«®¢ª ¢¨¤­®: í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ã ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ªã á àãá᪮£®
ï§ëª ­ ­£«¨©áª¨©, ¯à¨ç¥¬ à¥çì ¨¤¥â ® ¯¨á쬥­­®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥. ®«¥¥ £«ã¡®ª¨© ­ «¨§ â¨âã«ì­®© áâà ­¨æë ¬®¦¥â ­ ¢¥á⨠­ ¬ëá«ì,
çâ® ª­¨£ ®à¨¥­â¨à®¢ ­ ­ ¯à®¡«¥¬ë ­ ãç­®£®, ¨ ¢ ®á®¡¥­­®áâ¨
¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®£®, ¯¥à¥¢®¤ . é¥ ®¤­® ¢ ¦­®¥ ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨¥, ¨ ¥£® ⮦¥ ®âç á⨠¯®¤áª §ë¢ ¥â § £®«®¢®ª, ‚ë | ç¨â ⥫ì íâ¨å áâப |
¢« ¤¥¥â¥ àãá᪨¬ ï§ëª®¬.
᫨ ‚ 訬 த­ë¬ ï§ëª®¬ ¢á¥ ¦¥ ï¥âáï ­£«¨©áª¨© |
®â«®¦¨â¥ ¤«ï ­ ç « ¢ áâ®à®­ã í⨠«¨á⪨ ¨ ®¡à â¨â¥áì ¯à¥¦¤¥
¢á¥£® ª ­ ¯¨á ­­ë¬ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­® ¤«ï ‚ á à㪮¢®¤á⢠¬.
Œ ⥬ ⨪ã, ¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, á⮨⠮§­ ª®¬¨âìáï á ­¥¡®«ì让 ¡à®èîன S. H. Gould, A Manual for Translators of Mathematical Russian.  §¢ ­­ ï ª­¨¦¥çª ॣã«ïà­® ¯¥à¥¨§¤ ¥âáï €¬¥à¨ª ­áª¨¬
¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨¬ ®¡é¥á⢮¬ ¨ ¤®áâ â®ç­® ¤®áâ㯭 .
‘®¡à ­­ë¥ ­¨¦¥ § ¬¥ç ­¨ï, ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨ï ¨ ४®¬¥­¤ 樨 ¤à¥á®¢ ­ë ¢ ¯¥à¢ãî ®ç¥à¥¤ì ⥬, ªâ® ã稫 ­£«¨©áª¨© ª ª ­¥à®¤­®©
ï§ëª ¨ ®¢« ¤¥« ¨¬ ­ á⮫쪮, çâ® ¯®¤ã¬ë¢ ¥â ® ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ­ ­¥£®
(®ç¥à¥¤­®©) ­ ãç­®© à ¡®âë.
à®¢¥àì⥠ᥡï.
‚ ¬ ¡¥á¯®«¥§­ë ¯à¨¢®¤¨¬ë¥ ­¨¦¥ ४®¬¥­¤ 樨 ¢ á«¥¤ãîé¨å
á«ãç ïå.

2

ƒ«. 1. Š®¬ã ¤à¥á®¢ ­ë í⨠ᮢ¥âë?

( ) à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ § £®«®¢ª í⮩ ¡à®èîàë ¨§ ᯨ᪠:
advice, advices, advise, advises, soviets
‚ë ¢ë¡à «¨ á«®¢® soviets.
(¡) à¨ ¯à®á¬®âॠ¯à¨«®¦¥­¨© (Appendices 2 and 3) ‚ë ­¥ ®¡­ à㦨«¨ ­¨ ®¤­®£® ­¥§­ ª®¬®£® ¤«ï ᥡï á«®¢ ¨«¨ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï.
(¢) ‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥ ¢ë᪠§ âì ¬®â¨¢¨à®¢ ­­®¥ á㦤¥­¨¥ ® ¤®¯ãá⨬®á⨠ª ¦¤®© ¨§ á«¥¤ãîé¨å äà §:
an operator's pair
an operator pair
Assuming A , prove B . On assuming A , prove B .
Obtain 1 = 0 from (1.1). Obtain from (1.1) that 1 = 0.
Stupidity implies
The stupidity implies
obstinacy.
a certain obstinacy.
quiet satisfaction
profound satisfaction
Require solving (2.5).
Require that (2.5) be solved.
6 divides by 3.
6 is divisible by 3.
the great scholar's
the scholar's great
contribution
contribution
Banach's Theorem
the Banach Theorem
Unless the contrary is
Unless otherwise
stated, F = R.
stated, F = R.
’¥áâ (¢) ¬®¦­® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¨ ¤«ï ª®«¨ç¥á⢥­­®© (å®âï ¨ £àã¡®©) ®æ¥­ª¨ ⥪ã饣® á®áâ®ï­¨ï ‚ è¨å ï§ëª®¢ëå ¯®§­ ­¨©.
Žá­®¢®© ¤«ï ­ áâ®ï饩 ª­¨£¨ ¯®á«ã¦¨« ¥¥ ¯¥à¢ë© ¢ ਠ­â Russian → English in Mathematics. ‘®¢¥âë í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ã ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ªã, ¢ë襤訩 ¢ ᢥ⠢ 1991 £. ­¥¡®«ì訬 â¨à ¦®¬ ¨ ¤à¥á®¢ ­­ë©,
£« ¢­ë¬ ®¡à §®¬, ¬ ⥬ ⨪ ¬. ¥ ªæ¨ï ç¨â ⥫¥© (¯à®ï¢¨¢è ïáï ¯à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£® ¢ ¨å ¨­â¥à¥á¥) ¢ë§¢ « ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®áâì à áè¨à¨âì
à ¬ª¨ ¨§¤ ­¨ï.
‚ ¯à¥¤« £ ¥¬®¬ ¢ ਠ­â¥ áãé¥á⢥­­® 㢥«¨ç¥­ à §¤¥«, âà ªâãî騩 âà㤭®á⨠¯¥à¥¢®¤ , ¯à®¨§¢¥¤¥­ë §­ ç¨â¥«ì­ë¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï á¯à ¢®ç­®£® ¬ â¥à¨ « , ãç¨âë¢ î騥 ¨­â¥à¥áë ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª®¢
¥áâ¥á⢥­­®­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãàë, ¨á¯à ¢«¥­ë § ¬¥ç¥­­ë¥ ­¥¤®ç¥âë.
¨¦¥ æ¨â¨àãîâáï ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¨§ ¨áâ®ç­¨ª®¢ ¯à¨¢®¤¨¬ëå ᢥ¤¥­¨©
(ᯨ᮪ ®á­®¢­ëå ¨§ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­­ëå á®ç¨­¥­¨© ¯®¬¥é¥­ ¢ ª®­æ¥
ª­¨£¨). ®«­ë© ¯¥à¥ç¥­ì § ¨¬á⢮¢ ­¨© ¯à®áâ® ­¥¢®§¬®¦¥­.

ƒ«. 1. Š®¬ã ¤à¥á®¢ ­ë í⨠ᮢ¥âë?

3

 §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¢â®à ¯à¨­¨¬ ¥â ­ á¥¡ï ¯®«­ãî ¨ ¥¤¨­®«¨ç­ãî
®â¢¥âá⢥­­®áâì § ª ¦¤ãî ¨§ ®è¨¡®ª ¨ £«ã¯®á⥩, ¯à®ªà ¢è¨åáï
¢ ¨§«®¦¥­¨¥ ¨ ¢á¥ ¥é¥ á®åà ­¨¢è¨åáï ¢ ­¥¬, ¨ ¢ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ­¥
¯à¥â¥­¤ã¥â ­ ¢â®àá⢮ ­¨ ®¤­®£® ¨§ ¢¥à­ëå á㦤¥­¨©.
Žå®â § ¤¥ä¥ªâ ¬¨ ¯à®¤®«¦ ¥âáï 㦥 ¡®«¥¥ ¤¥áï⪠«¥â. •®ç¥âáï ­ ¤¥ïâìáï, çâ® ª®«¨ç¥á⢮ ¢à ­ìï ­¥ ¢®§à á⠥⠮⠨§¤ ­¨ï
ª ¨§¤ ­¨î.
 ¯¨á âì ¡à®èîàã ® ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ४®¬¥­¤®¢ «¨ ¬­¥ ¬®¨ ¤àã§ìï.
¥§ ¨å ¯®¬®é¨, í­â㧨 §¬ ¨ ãç áâ¨ï ®­ ­¥ ¬®£« ¡ëâì ­¨ á®áâ ¢«¥­ , ­¨ ¨§¤ ­ , ­¨ ¯¥à¥¨§¤ ­ .
„àã§ìï¬, ¯à¥¦­¨¬ ¨ ¡ã¤ã騬, ¯à¥¤­ §­ 祭 íâ ª­¨¦¥çª !

ƒ« ¢ 2
—â® ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨âì?
Š ç¥á⢮ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ § ¢¨á¨â ®â ¬­®£¨å ä ªâ®à®¢. ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨,
®­® ¯à®¯®à樮­ «ì­® ‚ 襬㠧­ ­¨î ¯à¥¤¬¥â , ª®â®à®¬ã ¯®á¢ï饭
¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬ë© ¬ â¥à¨ «, ¨ á⥯¥­¨ ‚ 襣® ¢« ¤¥­¨ï ­£«¨©áª¨¬ ï§ëª®¬. ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ª ç¥á⢮ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ®¡à â­® ¯à®¯®à樮­ «ì­®
‚ 襩 㢥७­®á⨠¢ §­ ª®¬á⢥ á ¯à¥¤¬¥â®¬ ¨ ‚ 襩 ®æ¥­ª¥ ᮡá⢥­­ëå ï§ëª®¢ëå ¯®§­ ­¨©. ‘. ƒ®ã«¤ ¢ ᢮¥© ª­¨£¥ ®â¬¥ç ¥â:
\A good translator of scienti c Russian must have three quali cations. In sharply increasing order of importance, these quali cations
are:
i) knowledge of Russian
ii) knowledge of English
iii) expert knowledge of some branch of science.
Thus the best translators of mathematical Russian are competent
mathematicians whose native language is English and whose knowledge of Russian, in some cases at least, has been somewhat hastily
acquired."
’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬, ¢â®à | ‚ è ᮢ¥â稪 | ­¥ ¯à¨­ ¤«¥¦¨â ª á®­¬ã
\the best translators of mathematical (and scienti c) Russian." Žâ­î¤ì
­¥ ¨áª«î祭®, çâ® ‚ë â ª¦¥ ­¥ 㤮¢«¥â¢®àï¥â¥ ¢ëá訬 ¨§ áä®à¬ã«¨à®¢ ­­ëå âॡ®¢ ­¨©. â® ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬® ¯®¬­¨âì
¢á¥£¤ . ’¥¬ ¡®«¥¥ ¥£® á«¥¤ã¥â ¨¬¥âì ¢ ¢¨¤ã ¯à¨ à¥è¥­¨¨ ¢®¯à®á
® ¯à¥¤¬¥â¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ .
‘⮨⠡à âìáï § ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ᮡá⢥­­®© ­ ãç­®© à ¡®âë ¨«¨ ¬ â¥à¨ « ¯® ¡«¨§ª®© ⥬ ⨪¥. à¨ í⮬ «ãçè¥ ­¥¤®®æ¥­¨âì, 祬

ƒ«. 2. —â® ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨âì?

5

¯¥à¥®æ¥­¨âì ª ª ᢮¨ §­ ­¨ï á¯¥æ¨ «ì­®© â¥à¬¨­®«®£¨¨, â ª ¨ ¢« ¤¥­¨¥ «¥ªá¨ª®© ¨ ­®à¬ ¬¨ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª .
¥à¥¢®¤ à ¡®âë, ¡«¨§ª®© ª áä¥à¥ ‚ è¨å ­ ãç­ëå ¨­â¥à¥á®¢,
¯®á¨«ì­ ï ‚ ¬, ­® ®â­î¤ì ­¥ ¯à®áâ ï § ¤ ç . à¨áâã¯ ï ª ¥¥ à¥è¥­¨î, ¤¥©áâ¢ã©â¥ ¯à®ä¥áᨮ­ «ì­®.
à®ä¥áᨮ­ «¨§¬ ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥â ã¬, §­ ç¨â, ¢ë᮪ãî ªà¨â¨ç­®áâì, ¯à®ï¢«ïîéãîáï, ¯à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£®, ¢ á ¬®ªà¨â¨ç­®áâ¨. ®«¥§­®
®á®§­ âì, ¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, çâ® ‚ë ï¥â¥áì ­¥ «ãç訬, í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª®¬. ‘â «® ¡ëâì, ‚ è¨ ï§ëª®¢ë¥ ­ ¢ëª¨ ¬®£ãâ ¡ëâì
(¨ ­ ¢¥à­ïª ¢ ª ª®©-â® ¬¥à¥) ãâà ç¥­ë ¢® ¢à¥¬ï ¯à®áâ®ï.
Œ¥¦¤ã ⥬ ª ç¥á⢮ ‚ 襣® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¡ã¤¥â ®æ¥­¨¢ âìáï ¯® ®¤­®© ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ £àã¡®© ®è¨¡ª¥. ¤¨­á⢥­­ ï ýà §¢¥á¨áâ ï ª«îª¢ þ
¨«¨ ýª®à®¢ ç¥à¥§ ïâìþ ¯¥à¥¢¥áïâ áâà ­¨æë ¤®¡à®â­®£® âà㤠.
ƒ« ¢­ë¥ ¨áâ®ç­¨ª¨ ®è¨¡®ª | ­¥¢¥¦¥á⢮, á ¬®¬­¥­¨¥ ¨ «¥­®áâì.
Š®­¥ç­®, ­ §¢ ­­ë¥ ª ç¥á⢠‚ ¬ ­¥ ᫨誮¬ ᨬ¯ â¨ç­ë. ‘«¥¤ã¥â ®á®§­ âì, çâ® ã í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª ¨å ¯à®ï¢«¥­¨ï ç áâ®
§ ¢ã «¨à®¢ ­ë, ¯®â®¬ã ¨ ­¥ ¯®¤¤ îâáï ¯®«­®¬ã á ¬®ª®­â஫î.
‘ª ¦¥¬, áªàëâë¬ ¯à¨§­ ª®¬ ­¥¢¥¦¥á⢠á«ã¦¨â ¬­¥­¨¥ ® ª «ìª¨à®¢ ­¨¨ àãááª¨å ®¡à §æ®¢ ª ª ® ¢¥à­®¬ ¤à㣥 ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª (¢­¥è­¥¥
ᢨ¤¥â¥«ìá⢮ | ¢®áª«¨æ ­¨¥: ýâ® ¨ ¯®-àãá᪨ â ª!þ).
‘ ¬®¬­¥­¨¥ ¯à®ï¢«ï¥âáï ¢ ã¡¥¦¤¥­­®á⨠¢ ⮬, çâ® ‚ è¨ á®¡á⢥­­ë¥ ¨¤¥®¬®â®à­ë¥ ªâë | ­ ¤¥¦­ë© ¨­áâà㬥­â ª®­â஫ï.
„®áâ â®ç­® ‚ ¬ ¢¬¥áâ® ¯à®æ¥¤ãàë Spell-checker ¨«¨ ¥¥ ¡®«¥¥ ¤à¥¢­¨å íª¢¨¢ «¥­â®¢ (¯à®¢¥àª á® á«®¢ ६ ¨ â. ¯.) ¯à¨¬¥­¨âì â¥áâ
ý ¢â®¬ ⨧¬ ¡¥§¬®§£«®£® ¢®á¯à®¨§¢¥¤¥­¨ï á«®¢ þ (ýŠ ª ï ¯¨èã ­¥
¤ã¬ ï, â ª ¨ ¢¥à­®!þ), §­ ©â¥ | ‚ë £à¥è­ë.
Šà®¬¥ ¢á¥£®, ¨¬¥©â¥ ¢ ¢¨¤ã, çâ® á ¬®¬­¥­¨¥ (ã ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª ¢®
¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥) ।ª® ®¡å®¤¨âáï ¡¥§ ­¥¢¥¦¥á⢠¨ ­¨ª®£¤ ¡¥§ «¥­¨.
à¨­æ¨¯ ý᪮«ìª® à § 㢨¤¨èì ¥£®, á⮫쪮 à § ¥£® ¨ ã¡¥©þ å®à®è® ¢á¯®¬¨­ âì ¯à¨ á⮫ª­®¢¥­¨¨ á ª ¢¥à§­ë¬ ¢®¯à®á®¬. Š ¦¤®¥
‚ è¥ ª®«¥¡ ­¨¥ ¯® ¯®¢®¤ã â®ç­®á⨠¢ë¡®à ⮣® ¨«¨ ¨­®£® á«®¢ ,
à ¢­® ª ª £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª®©, ¯ã­ªâã 樮­­®© ¨«¨ ¤à㣮© ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ¤®«¦­® ¡ëâì ­¥¬¥¤«¥­­® «¨ª¢¨¤¨à®¢ ­® á ¬ë¬ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¨ «ì­ë¬, à¥è¨â¥«ì­ë¬ ¨ ¯®«­ë¬ ®¡à §®¬.
®¤¢¥à£ âì ᮬ­¥­¨î ᢮¨ (ç áâ® ¨««î§®à­ë¥ ¨ ¯®¢¥àå­®áâ­ë¥)
§­ ­¨ï | ®¡ëç­ë© ¤¥¢¨§ ¨§ àᥭ « ãáâ ­®¢®ª 㬥«®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨-

6

ƒ«. 2. —â® ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨âì?

ª . ˆ ¥é¥: ‚ ¬ ­ã¦­® §­ âì, çâ® ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ £àã¡ë¥ ¤¥ä¥ªâë ­ ãç­ëå
¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢ á¢ï§ ­ë á «¨­£¢¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨¬¨ à §«¨ç¨ï¬¨ àãá᪮£® ¨ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª®¢ ¨ á®áâ ¢«ïîâ âਠ£à㯯ë: ®è¨¡ª¨ ¢ à ááâ ­®¢ª¥
®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥©, ®è¨¡ª¨ ¢ à ¡®â¥ á £« £®« ¬¨ ¨ ®è¨¡ª¨ ¢ ¯®áâ஥­¨¨
á«®¦­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©.
ˆâ ª, ‚ ¬ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®: ¯¥à¢®¥, ¤¥à¦ âì ¢ ¯ ¬ï⨠­ §¢ ­­ë¥ âà¨
¨áâ®ç­¨ª (¨ âਠá®áâ ¢­ë¥ ç áâ¨) ¢®§¬®¦­ëå ᮫¥æ¨§¬®¢; ¢â®à®¥,
¤¥à¦ âìáï ®â ­¨å ¢ áâ®à®­¥; ­ ª®­¥æ, ­¥ á⮨⠧ ¡ë¢ âì ¨§¢¥áâ­®¥
¨§à¥ç¥­¨¥:
\It is dicult to decide whether translators are heroes or fools."
(P. Jennings)

ƒ« ¢ 3
‚ è £« ¢­ ï § ¤ ç |
¯¥à¥¤ âì á®®¡é¥­¨¥
„«ï ¡ã¤ã饣® ­£«®ï§ëç­®£® ç¨â â¥«ï ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ | ­¥ª®â®à®¥ á®ç¨­¥­¨¥, ¨¬¥î饥 ¢ ®¡é¥¬ áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­® ­¥§ ¢¨á¨¬ë© ®â ®à¨£¨­ « áâ âãá. ‚ è ç¨â â¥«ì ¦¤¥â ­ ãç­®¥ á®®¡é¥­¨¥, ¨ १ã«ìâ â
‚ 襣® âà㤠®­ ®æ¥­¨â ¯® ã஢­î ¤®å®¤ç¨¢®á⨠¨§«®¦¥­¨ï ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥¬ëå ¬ â¥à¨ «®¢. ‘ã஢ ï ¯à ¢¤ ¦¨§­¨ ¢ ⮬, çâ® ­¨ç⮦­®áâì ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬®£® ®¡¥á業¨¢ ¥â ‚ è âà㤠¨ ­¥ ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¨á¯à ¢«¥­ ­¨ª ª¨¬¨ ᪮«ì 㣮¤­® ¢¨àâ㮧­ë¬¨ ãå¨é७¨ï¬¨ ¨ â®­ª®áâﬨ.
¥á®¬­¥­­®, çâ® ‚ë ®âª ¦¥â¥áì ®â ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¡¥áᮤ¥à¦ ⥫쭮©
à ¡®âë ¨ ¢§ïâë© ‚ ¬¨ ¤«ï ¯¥à¥¢®¤ àãá᪨© ⥪áâ §­ 稬. ‚ è
£« ¢­ ï § ¤ ç | ¯¥à¥¤ âì ¨¬¥î饥áï á®®¡é¥­¨¥. Š®­¥ç­®, ‚ è
¯¥à¥¢®¤ ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥âáï ®à¨£¨­ «®¬. Ž¤­ ª® á®åà ­¥­¨¥ ç¨á« ¡§ 楢, ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©, ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå ¨ â. ¯. ­¥ ï¥âáï ‚ 襩 楫ìî.  ¢­ë¬ ®¡à §®¬, ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ | ­¥ ७ ¤«ï ¤¥¬®­áâà 樨
‚ 襣® ¨áªãáá⢠¢ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ¨ á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨å
¯à¨¥¬ å, ¤«ï ¤®ª § ⥫ìá⢠᢮¥®¡ëç¨ï ¨ è¨à®âë ‚ 襣® ­£«¨©áª®£® «¥ªá¨ª®­ .
‘ ¬®ã⢥ত¥­¨¥ ç¥à¥§ ïá­®áâì á®®¡é¥­¨ï | ¢®â ®¤¨­ ¨§ ¢ ¦­¥©è¨å ¯à¨­æ¨¯®¢ å®à®è¥£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª . ®í⮬ã, ¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, ­¥â
­¨ª ª®© ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®á⨠¢­®á¨âì ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ®ç¥¢¨¤­ë¥ ¤¥ä¥ªâë àãá᪮£® ⥪áâ . ‘«¥¤ã¥â ¨á¯à ¢«ïâì ­¥ ⮫쪮 § ¬¥ç¥­­ë¥ ®¯¥ç ⪨,
­® ¨ ï¢­ë¥ á®¤¥à¦ ⥫ì­ë¥ ­¥¤®áâ ⪨ ®à¨£¨­ « . ¥ á®åà ­ï©â¥
¢ë«®¢«¥­­ë¥ ­¥â®ç­®áâ¨, ª®àá⨠¨ ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æë. Š®­¥ç­®, ¥á«¨
‚ë ­¥ ï¥â¥áì ¢â®à®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬®£® ¬ â¥à¨ « ¨ ­¥ ¬®¦¥â¥ ¯à®-

8

ƒ«. 3. ¥à¥¤ ©â¥ á®®¡é¥­¨¥

ª®­áã«ìâ¨à®¢ âìáï á â ª¨¬ ¢â®à®¬, ¯à®ï¢«ï©â¥ ®á®¡ãî ®áâ®à®¦­®áâì ¯à¨ ¢­¥á¥­¨¨ ¨§¬¥­¥­¨©, ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ ïáì ãáâà ­¥­¨¥¬ ¡¥áᯮà­ëå á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨å, £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å, â¥à¬¨­®«®£¨ç¥áª¨å ¨ ¤à㣨å
­¥¤®ç¥â®¢.
®¬­¨â¥ ® ¯à®§à ç­®á⨠¨§«®¦¥­¨ï ¨ âé ⥫쭮á⨠¢ ¤¥â «ïå.
\Clarity is the minimum necessary for good writing...."
(S. Greenbaum)
\Deliberate obscurity is a ridiculous vanity and obscurity through
carelessness is a form of insolence." (R. Quirk, The Use of English)
¥ â¥àï©â¥ çã¢á⢠¬¥àë! ’ ª, ¤®¯ãá⨬, ‚ë ¢áâà¥â¨«¨ ¤®áâ â®ç­®
®áâàãî ९«¨ªã ⨯
ý ¦¥£®¤­ë¥ ªà ⪨¥ á®®¡é¥­¨ï ®¤­®£® «â ©áª®£® ­ «¨â¨ª
® ª®«ì楢ëå ®¡« áâïå ¯®¤àë¢ îâ ª®­æ¥¯æ¨î £®«®¬®àä­®á⨠¢
¤¨ää¥à¥­æ¨ «ì­®¬ ¨ ¨­â¥£à «ì­®¬ ¨áç¨á«¥­¨ïåþ.
¥ á«¥¤ã¥â (¡¥§ ëå ¨ ®ç¥­ì ã¡¥¤¨â¥«ì­ëå ¤«ï ç¨â â¥«ï ª®­ªà¥â­ëå ®á­®¢ ­¨©) ¤®¡ ¢«ïâì ¢ ¥¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨© á ઠ§¬ (®âáãâáâ¢ãî騩 ¢ ®à¨£¨­ «¥) ¨ ¯¨á âì çâ®-â® ¢à®¤¥
\An altaian analyst's annular announcements on annuli annul analyticity in analysis."
‚ è ªà¨â¥à¨© | ïá­®áâì ¨ ¤®å®¤ç¨¢®áâì ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï ­ ãç­®£® ᮤ¥à¦ ­¨ï ®à¨£¨­ « .
®«¥§­® ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® ‚ è¨ ¯®¯ë⪨ ᮧ¤ âì ¨¤¥ «ì­ë© «¨â¥à âãà­ë© ­£«¨©áª¨© ⥪áâ ¢àï¤ «¨ ®ª ¦ãâáï ¡á®«îâ­® 㤠ç­ë¬¨. ’ॡ®¢ ­¨ï, ¯à¥¤êï¢«ï¥¬ë¥ ª ¡®«ì让 «¨â¥à âãà¥, ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ ­¥à¥ «¨§ã¥¬ë ¢ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ (¬¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, â® ¦¥
®â­®á¨âáï ª «î¡ë¬ ­ ãç­ë¬ ⥪áâ ¬).
‚ ª ç¥á⢥ ¨««îáâà 樨 ¤ ¢ ©â¥ à áᬮâਬ ¨§¢¥áâ­ãî ª®­áâ â æ¨î ( ªª«¥á¨ áâ, £«. 9:11):
ýˆ ®¡à ⨫áï ï, ¨ ¢¨¤¥« ¯®¤ ᮫­æ¥¬, çâ® ­¥ ¯à®¢®à­ë¬ ¤®áâ ¥âáï ãᯥè­ë© ¡¥£, ­¥ åà ¡àë¬ | ¯®¡¥¤ , ­¥ ¬ã¤àë¬ | å«¥¡,
¨ ­¥ ã à §ã¬­ëå | ¡®£ âá⢮, ¨ ­¥ ¨áªãá­ë¬ | ¡« £®à ᯮ«®¦¥­¨¥, ­® ¢à¥¬ï ¨ á«ãç © ¤«ï ¢á¥å ¨åþ.

ƒ«. 3. ¥à¥¤ ©â¥ á®®¡é¥­¨¥

9

„®áâ â®ç­® ᮢ६¥­­ë© ¡®£®á«®¢áª¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤, ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­­ë© ¢ ¢ ਠ­â¥ \Good News Bible", â ª®¢:
\I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not
always win the race, and the brave do not always win the battle.
Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent man do not always
get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad
luck happens to everyone."
‚®â ®¡é¥¯à¨­ïâë© ª« áá¨ç¥áª¨© ­£«¨©áª¨© ¢ ਠ­â:
\I returned and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift,
nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet
riches to men of understanding, not yet favor to men of skill; but
time and chance happeneth to them all."
€ ¢®â á®ç¨­¥­­ ï „¦. Žà¢¥««®¬ ¯ த¨ï, \a parody, but not a very
gross one", ­ â®â ¦¥ ®âà뢮ª:
\Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the
conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits
no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that
a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken
into account."
‚ë ¤®«¦­ë ¢ëà ¡®â âì ᢮© ¢§£«ï¤ ­ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ®¡à §æë. ¥ ¨áª«î祭®, çâ® â१¢ë© ­ «¨§ ‚ è¨å ¢®§¬®¦­®á⥩ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥â ª ¢ë¢®¤ã ® ¯à¨¥¬«¥¬®á⨠¤«ï ‚ 襣® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¥áª®£® áâ¨«ï ­ ãç­®£® ª ­æ¥«ïà¨â , ¨¬¨â¨à®¢ ­­®£® „¦. Žà¢¥««®¬.
ã ¨, à §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¢ ᢮¥© «¨ç­®© ¯à ªâ¨ª¥ ‚ë ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¤®«¦­ë § ­¨¬ âìáï ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¬¨ ¨¡«¨¨, ’ «¬ã¤ , Š®à ­ , ˜¥ªá¯¨à ,
’®«á⮣®, ìîâ®­ , Œ àªá ¨ ¤à. ­ ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª. ᫨ ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬®¬ äà £¬¥­â¥ ®¡­ à㦨« áì æ¨â â ¨§ ¨§¢¥áâ­®£® ¢â®à ,
‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨«®¦¨âì ¤®«¦­ë¥ ãᨫ¨ï ¨ ®âë᪠âì ª ­®­¨ç¥áª¨©
⥪áâ ¨«¨ ®¡é¥¯à¨§­ ­­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤. ® áç áâìî, ¯®¤®¡­ë¥ á¨âã 樨
।ª® ¢áâà¥ç îâáï ¯à¨ à ¡®â¥ á ¥áâ¥á⢥­­®­ ãç­ë¬¨ áâ âìﬨ.
‚ ¬¥­â «¨â¥â¥ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª ­ ¡«î¤ îâáï ç¥àâë
¤¢ãå ⨯¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥àá®­ ¦¥©. ¥à¢ë© | í⮠᮫¥æ¨áâ Gabble the

10

ƒ«. 3. ¥à¥¤ ©â¥ á®®¡é¥­¨¥

Casus (®­ ¦¥ ƒà吝ã«ï Š §ãá­ë©), ¢â®à®© | ¯ãà¨áâ Usus the Purest
(¯®-àãá᪨ | —¨áâî«ï à ¢®¯¨á). Š ¦¤ë© ¬®¦¥â ¢à¥¬ï ®â ¢à¥¬¥­¨
¯®©¬ âì á¥¡ï ­ (ॠ«¨§®¢ ­­®¬) áâ६«¥­¨¨ á¡®«â­ãâì (¨ ­ ¯¨á âì)
çâ® ¯®¯ «®. ‚®â ‚ ¬ ¨ Gabble the Casus, a solecist.
ˆ¬¥©â¥ ¢ ¢¨¤ã ¢¥áì¬ ¨§¢¥áâ­ãî ¨áâ®à¨î ®¤­®£® í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£®
¯¥à¥¢®¤ , à á᪠§ ­­ãî „¦. ‹¨â«¢ã¤®¬ ¢ ¥£® §­ ¬¥­¨â®© ýŒ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®© ᬥá¨þ: ,,‘«¥¤ãîé ï ¨¤¥ï ¢®§­¨ª« ᫨誮¬ ¯®§¤­® (­¥
¯®¬­î, ª®¬ã ®­ ¯à¨è« ¢ £®«®¢ã), ­® ¤®«¦­® ¡ë«® á«ãç¨âìáï ¢®â
çâ®. Ÿ ­ ¯¨á « à ¡®âã ¤«ï Comptes Rendus, ª®â®àãî ¯à®ä. Œ. ¨áá
¯¥à¥¢¥« ¤«ï ¬¥­ï ­ äà ­æã§áª¨© ï§ëª. ‚ ª®­æ¥ ¡ë«® âਠ¯®¤áâà®ç­ëå § ¬¥ç ­¨ï. ¥à¢®¥ (­ äà ­æã§áª®¬ ï§ëª¥) £« ᨫ®: ýŸ ¢¥áì¬ ¯à¨§­ ⥫¥­ ¯à®ä. ¨ááã § ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ­ áâ®ï饩 áâ âì¨þ. ‚â®à®¥
£« ᨫ®: ýŸ ¯à¨§­ ⥫¥­ ¯à®ä. ¨ááã § ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¯à¥¤ë¤ã饣® § ¬¥ç ­¨ïþ. ’à¥âì¥ £« ᨫ®: ýŸ ¯à¨§­ ⥫¥­ ¯à®ä. ¨ááã § ¯¥à¥¢®¤
¯à¥¤ë¤ã饣® § ¬¥ç ­¨ïþ...\
Ÿá­®, ®â ª®£® ¯à¨è« ®¯¨á ­­ ï „¦. ‹¨â«¢ã¤®¬ á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª ï ¨¤¥ï, ¥¥ ¢â®à | Usus the Purest, a purist.
¥ â ª¨¥ 㦠¡¥á¯®«¥§­ë¥ í⨠ƒà吝ã«ï Š §ãá­ë© ¨ —¨áâî«ï
à ¢®¯¨á. ¥à¢ë© | ¦¨¢®© ¨ ᨬ¯ â¨ç­ë© | áâ६¨âáï ã¯à®áâ¨âì
‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤, ᤥ« âì ¥£® «¥£ª¨¬ ¨ à §£®¢®à­ë¬. ‚â®à®© | áã宩
¨ ¯¥¤ ­â¨ç­ë© | § áâ ¢«ï¥â ‚ á ¯®¤ç¨­ïâìáï ª ­®­¨§¨à®¢ ­­ë¬
¨ áªãç­ë¬ ä®à¬ «ì­ë¬ ®¡à §æ ¬. ‚ᥠ¦¥ ¢ ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­ëå á«ãç ïå
‚ ¬ á⮨⠤¥à¦ âìáï â ¬, £¤¥ Usus (¢ ª®­¥ç­®¬ áç¥â¥, ã§ãá | ¯®
¯®­ïâ¨î | ¯à¨­ïâë¥ ­®á¨â¥«ï¬¨ ¤ ­­®£® ï§ëª 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï á«®¢,
ãá⮩稢ëå ®¡®à®â®¢, äà § ¨ â. ¤.).
„¥¢¨§: \Usus versus casus" | ‚ è ¢¥à­ë© ®à¨¥­â¨à.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, ®¤­ ª®, çâ® ¯® ­ âãॠGabble the Casus ¨ Usus
the Purest | ¤® ¡¥§®¡à §¨ï ä ­ â¨ç­ë¥ íªáâ६¨áâë. ‚ë©¤ï ¨§-¯®¤
‚ 襣® ª®­â஫ï, ®­¨ ᯮᮡ­ë ®¡ê¥¤¨­¨âìáï ¢ ƒŠ— ¨ ¯à¥¢à â¨âì
‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¢ ä àá.
ã¤ì⥠¡¤¨â¥«ì­ë!

Render communication!

ƒ« ¢ 4
Œ â¥à¨ï ¯¥à¢¨ç­
‚® ¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥, ¯¥à¢¨ç¥­ ¬ â¥à¨ «, ¢§ïâë© ‚ ¬¨ ¤«ï ¯¥à¥¢®¤ . ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ­®á¨â ¢â®à¨ç­ë©, ¯®¤ç¨­¥­­ë© ®à¨£¨­ «ã, å à ªâ¥à. â® §­ ç¨â, çâ® ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨«®¦¨âì ãᨫ¨ï ¤«ï â®ç­®©
¯¥à¥¤ ç¨ ª ª áãé¥á⢠, â ª ¨ ä®à¬ë ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬®£® á®®¡é¥­¨ï.
à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨¥ ४®¬¥­¤ 樨, ¢ë⥪ î騥 ¨§ ᤥ« ­­®© ª®­áâ â 樨, ¢ ⮬, çâ® ‚ë ®¡ï§ ­ë á®åà ­ïâì ¢á¥ ®æ¥­ª¨ ¢â®à , ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¯® ¢®§¬®¦­®á⨠⥠¦¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨, çâ® ¨ ®­. ’ ª, ¥á«¨ ¢â®à
à §«¨ç ¥â ý¯®¤ ¤¥©á⢨¥¬ ᨫëþ, ý¯®¤ ¢«¨ï­¨¥¬ ᨫëþ ¨«¨ ý¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨ ᨫëþ, ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë â ª¦¥ ¯¨á âì \under the action of a force",
\under the in uence of a force", \in the presence of a force."
᫨ ‚ è ¢â®à ­¥ ª®á­®ï§ë祭 ¨ ¯¨è¥â ý®ç¥¢¨¤­®, ïá­®, ­¥á®¬­¥­­®, ¡¥áᯮ୮ ¨ â. ¯.þ, á«¥¤ã¥â à §­®®¡à §¨âì «¥ªá¨ª®­, ¨á¯®«ì§ãï ¯à®¨§¢®¤­ë¥ ®â \obvious, clear, plain, doubtless, immediate, etc."
‚ ¦­® ¡ëâì ¢­¨¬ ⥫ì­ë¬ ª á⨫î á®®¡é¥­¨ï. ᫨ ‚ è ¢â®à ¯¨è¥â çâ®-â® ¢à®¤¥ ý¡à®á ¥âáï ¢ £« § þ, ý¯à¨­¨¬ ï ¢ à áç¥âþ
¨ â. ¯., ‚ë á ¯®«­ë¬ ®á­®¢ ­¨¥¬ ¬®¦¥â¥ ¨ ¤®«¦­ë ¯¨á âì: \it leaps
to eyes", \taking account of", etc. Ž¤­ ª® ¥á«¨ áâ¨«ì ‚ 襣® ¢â®à á¢ï§ ­ áâண¨¬ ¨ ä®à¬ «ì­ë¬ ¯®¤¡®à®¬ àãá᪨å á«®¢ (᪠¦¥¬,
¢ ®à¨£¨­ «¥ ¥áâì ­¥çâ® ¢à®¤¥ ýªà㯭®¬ áèâ ¡­ë©þ ¨«¨ ý¤ ¡ëþ),
â® ¢ ­£«¨©áª¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ­¥ ¬®£ã⠯஭¨ª âì äà §ë ⨯ \a glance
at (5.1) reveals", \take a rather cavalier look at...", \a stunning lemma",
etc.
Žá®¡ãî ¡¤¨â¥«ì­®áâì ¯à®ï¢«ï©â¥ ¯® ®â­®è¥­¨î ª ¨¤¨®¬ ¬. ®
®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã, ¢á¥ \come in handy", \take into one's head", \pick on
something", \stretch a point", etc. ®¡ï§ ­ë ¢ë§ë¢ âì 㠂 á á⮩ªãî

12

ƒ«. 4. Œ â¥à¨ï ¯¥à¢¨ç­

­¥£ ⨢­ãî ॠªæ¨î.
® ¯à ¢¤¥ £®¢®àï, ¢ ®¡ëç­ëå ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢ å ‚ë ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨â¥ à冷¢ãî à ¡®âã à冷¢®£® ¢â®à , ­ ¯¨á ­­ãî à冷¢ë¬ ­ ãç­ë¬
àãá᪨¬ ï§ëª®¬. Œ®à «ì: ¢ á«ãç ¥ ®¡é¥£® ¯®«®¦¥­¨ï, ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤
¤®«¦¥­ ¡ëâì ­ ¯¨á ­ à冷¢ë¬ ­ ãç­ë¬ ­£«¨©áª¨¬ ï§ëª®¬ ­ «®£¨ç­®© ¢ëà §¨â¥«ì­®áâ¨. Š®­¥ç­®, ¥á«¨ ¯¥à¥¤ ‚ ¬¨ 襤¥¢à ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãàë ¨ ‚ë ®éãé ¥â¥ ¢ ᥡ¥ á¨«ë ¥£® ­¥ ¨á¯®àâ¨âì |
¤¥©áâ¢ã©â¥ ᬥ«®. ‚¯¥à¥¤! ® ­¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥:
¬ â¥à¨ï ¢á¥ ¦¥ ¯¥à¢¨ç­ ...

ƒ« ¢ 5
ˆ¬¥©â¥ ¢ ¢¨¤ã ¯à ¢¨«
. • «¬®è
‚ë¤ î騩áï ¬¥à¨ª ­áª¨© ¬ ⥬ ⨪ . • «¬®è ­ ¯¨á « ¬­®£® à ¡®â, ¤à¥á®¢ ­­ëå è¨à®ª®© ¯ã¡«¨ª¥ ¨ ¯®á¢ï饭­ëå â¥å­¨ª¥
­ ãç­®© à ¡®âë. Ž¤­ ¨§ ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ ¨§¢¥áâ­ëå â ª¨å ¥£® áâ ⥩ How
to Write Mathematics ᮤ¥à¦¨â ¬­®£® ¯®«¥§­ëå ४®¬¥­¤ 権. ‚®â
­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¨§ ­¨å.
Write Good English
...Good English style implies correct grammar, correct choice of words,
correct punctuation, and, perhaps above all, common sense. There is
a di erence between \that" and \which", and \less" and \fewer" are not
the same, and a good mathematical author must know such things. The
reader may not be able to de ne the di erence, but a hundred pages of
colloquial misusage, or worse, has a cumulative abrasive e ect that the
author surely does not want to produce....
Honesty Is the Best Policy
The purpose of using good mathematical language is, of course, to
make the understanding of the subject easy for the reader, and perhaps
even pleasant. The style should be good not in the sense of ashy brilliance, but good in the sense of perfect unobtrusiveness. The purpose
is to smooth the reader's way, anticipate his diculties and to forestall
them. Clarity is what's wanted, not pedantry; understanding, not fuss....

14

ƒ«. 5. à ¢¨« . • «¬®è

Down with the Irrelevant and the Trivial
...The rst question is where the theorem should be stated, and my
answer is: rst. Don't ramble on in a leisurely way, not telling the reader
where you are going, and then suddenly announce \Thus we have proved
that...".
Ideally the statement of a theorem is not only one sentence, but
a short one at that....
The Editorial We Is Not All Bad
...Since the best expository style is the least obtrusive one, I tend
nowadays to prefer neutral approach. That does not mean using \one"
often, or ever; sentences like \one has thus proved that ..." are awful. It does mean the complete avoidance of rst person pronouns in
either singular or plural. \Since p, it follows that q." \This implies p."
\An application of p to q yields r." Most (all ?) mathematical writing
is (should be ?) factual; simple declarative sentences are the best for
communicating facts.
A frequently e ective and time-saving device is the use of the imperative. \To nd p, multiply q by r." \Given p, put q equal to r." (Two
digressions about \given". (1) Do not use it when it means nothing. Example: \For any given p there is a q." (2) Remember that it comes from
an active verb and resist the temptation to leave it dangling. Example:
Not \Given p, there is a q", but \Given p, nd q".)
There is nothing wrong with the editorial \we", but if you like it,
do not misuse it. Let \we" mean \the author and the reader" (or \the
lecturer and the audience")....
Use Words Correctly
...in everyday English \any" is an ambiguous word; depending on
context it may hint at an existential quanti er (\have you any wool?",
\if anyone can do it, he can") or a universal one (\any number can
play"). Conclusion: never use \any" in mathematical writing. Replace it
by \each" or \every", or recast the whole sentence.... \Where" is usually
a sign of a lazy afterthought that should have been thought through
before. \If n is suciently large, then |an | < ε, where ε is a preassigned
positive number"; both disease and cure are clear. \Equivalent" for
theorems is logical nonsense.... As for \if ... then ... if ... then", that
is just a frequent stylistic bobble committed by quick writers and rued

ƒ«. 5. à ¢¨« . • «¬®è

15

by slow readers. \If p, then if q, then r." Logically all is well (p ⇒
(q ⇒ r)), but psychologically it is just another pebble to stumble over,
unnecessarily. Usually all that is needed to avoid it is to recast the
sentence, but no universally good recasting exists; what is best depends
on what is important in the case at hand. It could be \If p and q, then
r", or \In the presence of p, the hypothesis q implies the conclusion r",
or many other versions.
Use Technical Terms Correctly
...I belong to the school that believes that functions and their values
are suciently di erent that the distinction should be maintained.
\Sequence" means \function whose domain is the set of natural
numbers." When an author writes \the union of a sequence of measurable sets is measurable" he is guiding the reader's attention to where
it doesn't belong. The theorem has nothing to do with the rstness of
the rst set, the secondness of the second, and so on; the sequence is
irrelevant. The correct statement is that \the union of a countable set
of measurable sets is measurable" (or, if a di erent emphasis is wanted,
\the union of a countably in nite set of measurable sets is measurable").
The theorem that \the limit of a sequence of measurable functions is
measurable" is a very di erent thing; there \sequence" is correctly used.
I have systematically and always, in spoken word and written, use
\contain" for ∈ and \include" for ⊂. I don't say that I have proved
anything by this, but I can report that (a) it is very easy to get used to,
(b) it does no harm whatever, and (c) I don't think that anybody ever
noticed it.
Consistency, by the way, is a major virtue and its opposite is a cardinal sin in exposition....
Resist Symbols
...The best notation is no notation; whenever it is possible to avoid
the use of complicated alphabetic apparatus, avoid it....
The rule of never leaving a free variable in a sentence, like many
of the rules I am stating, is sometimes better to break than to obey.
The sentence, after all, is an arbitrary unit, and if you want a free \f "
dangling in one sentence so that you may refer to it in a later sentence
in, say, the same paragraph, I don't think you should necessarily be
drummed out of the regiment. The rule is essentially sound, just the

16

ƒ«. 5. à ¢¨« . • «¬®è

same, and while it may be bent sometimes, it does not deserve to be
shattered into smithereens....
Use Symbols Correctly
...How are we to read \∈": as the verb phrase \is in" or as the
preposition \in"? Is it correct to say: \For x ∈ A, we have x ∈ B ", or
\If x ∈ A, then x ∈ B "? I strongly prefer the latter (always read \∈" as
\is in") and I doubly deplore the former (both usages occur in the same
sentence). It's easy to write and it's easy to read \For x in A , we have
x ∈ B "; all dissonance and all even momentary ambiguity is avoided.
The same is true for \⊂" even though the verbal translation is longer,
and even more true for \5". A sentence such as \Whenever a possible
number is 5 3, its square is 5 9" is ugly.
Not only paragraphs, sentences, words, letters, and mathematical
symbols, but even the innocent looking symbols of standard prose can
be the source of blemishes and misunderstandings; I refer to punctuation marks. A couple of examples will suce. First: an equation,
or inequality, or inclusion, or any other mathematical clause is, in its
informative content, equivalent to a clause in ordinary language, and,
therefore, it demands just as much to be separated from its neighbors.
In other words: punctuate symbolic sentences just as you would verbal
ones. Second: don't overwork a small punctuation mark such as a period
or a comma. They are easy for the reader to overlook, and the oversight
causes backtracking, confusion, delay. Example: \Assume that a ∈ X .
X belongs to the class C , ...". The period between the two X 's is overworked, and so is this one: \Assume that X vanishes. X belongs to
the class C , ...". A good general rule is: never start a sentence with
a symbol. If you insist on starting the sentence with the mention of the
thing the symbol denotes, put the appropriate word in apposition, thus:
\The set X belongs to the class C , ...".
The overworked period is no worse than the overworked comma.
Not \For invertible X, X ∗ also is invertible", but \For invertible X , the
adjoint X ∗ also is invertible". Similarly, not \Since p 6= 0, p ∈ U ", but
\Since p 6= 0, it follows that p ∈ U ". Even the ordinary \If you don't like
it, lump it" (or, rather, its mathematical relatives) is harder to digest
than the stu y-sounding \If you don't like it, then lump it"; I recommend
\then" with \if" in all mathematical contexts. The presence of \then"
can never confuse; its absence can....

ƒ« ¢ 6
Š ª à ¡®â âì ­ ¤ ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¬?
᫨ ®â¢¥ç âì ª®à®âª®, â® ý® ¯à¨­æ¨¯ã FTFþ, â. ¥. \First
Things First." ®¤à®¡­¥¥ £®¢®àï, ¯à®æ¥áá ‚ 襣® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¬®¦­®
ãá«®¢­® à §¤¥«¨âì ­ âਠ¯®á«¥¤®¢ ⥫ì­ëå íâ ¯ :
I. Russian → Anglo-Russian Pidgin;
II. Anglo-Russian Pidgin → English;
III. English → Good English.
¥à¢ë© íâ ¯ | íâ® ç¥à­®¢®© ¯®¤áâà®ç­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ á àãá᪮£® ­
ýª¢ §¨ ­£«¨©áª¨©þ, â®ç­¥¥, ­ â®â ý ­£«®-àãá᪨©þ ï§ëª, ª®â®àë¬
¢ ᮢ¥à襭á⢥ ¢« ¤¥¥â Gabble the Casus ¨ á ®¡à §æ ¬¨ ª®â®à®£® ‚ë
㦥, ­ ¢¥à­®¥, ¬­®£®ªà â­® ¢áâà¥ç «¨áì. ( §­®¢¨¤­®áâﬨ AngloRussian Pidgin ¢ ­ ãç­®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ïîâáï: Mathidgin, Physidgin,
Chemidgin, Economidgin, etc., á®áâ ¢«ïî騥 Scienidgin, â. ¥. Scienti c
Pidgin.)
‚ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á ¯à¨­æ¨¯®¬ FTF ­ í⮬ íâ ¯¥ ¤«ï ‚ á ¯¥à¢®á⥯¥­­ë¬ ï¥âáï àãá᪨© í«¥¬¥­â | ᮤ¥à¦ ­¨¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬®£®
¬ â¥à¨ « . Žâáî¤ á«¥¤ã¥â, çâ® ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë 㤥«¨âì ¬ ªá¨¬ã¬ ¢­¨¬ ­¨ï §­ ç¨¬ë¬ ­ ãç­ë¬ ᯥªâ ¬: ¯®¤¡®àã â®ç­®© ᮢ६¥­­®©
â¥à¬¨­®«®£¨¨, á®åà ­¥­¨î ¤®ª § ⥫쭮© «®£¨ç¥áª®© áâàãªâãàë ¨á室­®£® ⥪áâ ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ¨ â. ¯. ‘â®«ì ¦¥ ®ç¥¢¨¤­®, çâ® ‚ë ®¡ï§ ­ë
®¡¥á¯¥ç¨¢ âì ¤¥ª¢ â­®áâì àãá᪮¬ã ⥪áâã, ¤®áâ â®ç­® â®ç­® ¯®¤¡¨à âì ­£«¨©áª¨¥ íª¢¨¢ «¥­âë á«®¢, ª®­áâàãªæ¨© ¨ â. ¯. Š®à®ç¥,
‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¤®«¦¥­ ᮮ⢥âá⢮¢ âì â¥à¬¨­ã ý¯®¤áâà®ç­ë©þ.
 í⮬ ¦¥ íâ ¯¥ ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à®¢¥à¨âì ¨ ¢®ááâ ­®¢¨âì ®à¨£¨­ «ë ¢á¥å æ¨â¨à㥬ëå ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ­£«¨©áª¨å ¬ â¥à¨ «®¢ (横«¨ç¥-

18

ƒ«. 6. Š ª à ¡®â âì ­ ¤ ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¬?

᪨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤, English → Russian → English, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ¨áª ¦ ¥â
¯¥à¢®¨áâ®ç­¨ª).
’ãâ ¦¥ ‚ ¬ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬® ¯à®¢¥à¨âì ­ ¯¨á ­¨¥ ᮡá⢥­­ëå ¨¬¥­:
£¥®£à ä¨ç¥áª¨å ­ §¢ ­¨©, ­ ¨¬¥­®¢ ­¨© ¯¥à¨®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ¨§¤ ­¨© ¨
®á®¡¥­­® ä ¬¨«¨©. ‚ ¯®á«¥¤­¥¬ ‚ ¬ ¯®¬®¦¥â Appendix 1. ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ®âáãâá⢨¥ ¢ ­¥¬ ­ã¦­®£® ‚ ¬ ¨¬¥­¨ ¨«¨ ­¥á®¢¯ ¤¥­¨¥
¢ë¡à ­­®£® ‚ ¬¨ ¢ ਠ­â á ¯à¥¤« £ ¥¬ë¬ | íâ® ¢¥áª¨¥ ®á­®¢ ­¨ï ¤«ï á¯¥æ¨ «ì­®£® ãâ®ç­¥­¨ï. ®¬­¨â¥ â ª¦¥ ®¡ ®¤­®ä ¬¨«ìæ å
¨ ᮧ¢ã稨 á«®¢.
 ¯¥à¢®¬ íâ ¯¥ ‚ ¬ ¯®«¥§­® ¢®§¤¥à¦ âìáï ®â ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¯à¥¤¨á«®¢¨ï ¨ § £®«®¢ª , â ª ª ª ®ç¥­ì ç áâ® íâ¨ í«¥¬¥­âë ¢ë§ë¢ îâ §­ ç¨â¥«ì­ë¥ âà㤭®áâ¨. Ž¡ï§ ⥫쭮 ¯à®¢¥àì⥠­ ¯¨á ­¨¥ á«®¢
á ¯®¬®éìî ¤®áâ㯭ëå ‚ ¬ á।á⢠(ª®¬¯ìîâ¥à­®£® á¥à¢¨á ¨«¨ á«®¢ àï).
 ¡®â ï ­ ¤ ‚ 訬 ¯®¤áâà®ç­¨ª®¬, ¨£­®à¨àã©â¥ ( ¢â®à᪨¥ ¨
ᮡá⢥­­ë¥) á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨¥ ª®àá⨠¨ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ­¥ïá­®áâ¨. Ž¯ëâ ¯®ª §ë¢ ¥â, çâ® ¡®àì¡ § «¨­£¢¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨ ¢ë᮪®¥ ª ç¥á⢮ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ­ í⮬ íâ ¯¥ ®â­¨¬ ¥â ¬ áá㠢६¥­¨ ¨ ᨫ, ­¥
¯à¨¢®¤ï, ®¤­ ª®, ª ¦¥« ¥¬ë¬ १ã«ìâ â ¬.
‚ á«ãç ¥, ª®£¤ ‚ë ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨â¥ ç㦮© ¬ â¥à¨ « ¨ ¨¬¥¥â¥ ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ®¡é âìáï á ¢â®à®¬, ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮 ¯®ª ¦¨â¥ ¥¬ã ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ­ Anglo-Russian Pidgin. €¢â®à ¯®¬®¦¥â ‚ ¬ á â¥à¬¨­®«®£¨¥©,
ä ¬¨«¨ï¬¨, æ¨â â ¬¨ ¨ â. ¯. ᫨ ¦¥ ®­ (¤ ¦¥ á ãå¬ë«ª®©) 㪠¦¥â
­ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¤¥ä¥ªâë (¤ ¦¥ ®ç¥¢¨¤­ë¥ ¤«ï ‚ á), ­¥ à ááâà ¨¢ ©â¥áì! €¢â®àã ¯à¨ïâ­®, ‚ ¬ ­¥ ®¡¨¤­®, â ª ª ª ­ ¯¥à¢®¬ íâ ¯¥
­¨ª ª¨å á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå «¨­£¢¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨å 楫¥© ‚ë ¯¥à¥¤ ᮡ®© ­¥ áâ ¢¨â¥.
‚â®à®© íâ ¯ | ¯¥à¥å®¤ ®â Anglo-Russian Pidgin ª ­®à¬ «ì­®¬ã
­£«¨©áª®¬ã ï§ëªã. ® ¯à¨­æ¨¯ã FTF ¨¬¥­­® English ⥯¥àì ï¥âáï ¯à¥¤¬¥â®¬ ¯¥à¢®á⥯¥­­®£® ¢­¨¬ ­¨ï. ‚ è £« ¢­ë© ª®­áã«ìâ ­â ⥯¥àì Usus the Purest. ‡ ¡ã¤ì⥠àãá᪨© ®à¨£¨­ «! ᫨ ‚ë
¯à¨ç¥áë¢ ¥â¥ ç㦮© ­£«®-àãá᪨© ¯®¤áâà®ç­¨ª, ­¥ £«ï¤¨â¥ ¢ ¯à¨«®¦¥­­ë© ¯¥à¢®¨áâ®ç­¨ª.
‚ è § ¤ ç ­ ⥪ã饬 íâ ¯¥ | ᮢ¥à襭á⢮¢ âì ï§ëª®¢ãî
ä®à¬ã, ­¥ á ¬®¥ ­ ãç­®¥ á®®¡é¥­¨¥. Œë 㦥 ®¡á㦤 «¨ á ‚ ¬¨
âਠá®áâ ¢­ë¥ ç á⨠¨ âਠ¨áâ®ç­¨ª ®¡ëç­ëå ®è¨¡®ª í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢ | ¢ à ááâ ­®¢ª¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥©, ¢ ¢ë¡®à¥ £« £®«ì­ëå
ã¯à ¢«¥­¨© ¨ ¢ ¯®áâ஥­¨¨ á«®¦­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©.  §¢ ­­ë¥ í«¥-

ƒ«. 6. Š ª à ¡®â âì ­ ¤ ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¬?

19

¬¥­âë á⮨â á¯¥æ¨ «ì­® ª®­â஫¨à®¢ âì. ‚áâà¥ç îâáï ¨ ­¥¯à¥¤áª §ã¥¬ë¥ ¨­¤¨¢¨¤ã «ì­ë¥ ®á®¡¥­­®á⨠­¥§­ ª®¬ëå ‚ ¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª®¢
(­ ¯à¨¬¥à, áâà ­­ë© á«®¢ à­ë© § ¯ á, «î¡®¢ì ª ï§ëªã ª®¬¨ªá®¢, ª
ç¥âëà¥å¡ãª¢¥­­ë¬ á«®¢ ¬ ¨ â. ¯.).
¥ ¡®©â¥áì ®è¨¡®ª. ¥ «¥­¨â¥áì ¨å ­ 室¨âì, ­ «¨§¨à®¢ âì ¨,
ª®­¥ç­® ¦¥, ¨á¯à ¢«ïâì.
\He who never made a mistake never made a discovery."
(S. Smiles)
¥¤ ªâ¨àãï, âé ⥫쭮 ¢ë¢¥àï©â¥ ¯¥à¢ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï | ç áâ® á¨á⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ®è¨¡ª¨ ¯à®­¨ª îâ 㦥 ¢ ­¨å.  ª®­¥æ, ­ í⮬
íâ ¯¥, ᪮à४â¨à®¢ ¢ ⥪áâ, ¢ ᮡá⢥­­®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â § ­ïâìáï ¯à¥¤¨á«®¢¨¥¬ (¢¢¥¤¥­¨¥¬) ¨ § £« ¢¨¥¬.
Žá®¡®¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ § £« ¢¨î | íâ® ¢¨§¨â­ ï ª àâ®çª ‚ 襣®
¯¥à¥¢®¤ .
‚ë¯à ¢«¥­­ë© ¯®á«¥ ¢â®à®£® íâ ¯ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ç㦮© à ¡®âë â ª¦¥ ¬®¦­® ¯®ª § âì ¢â®à㠮ਣ¨­ « . Žâ­¥á¨â¥áì ¢­¨¬ ⥫쭮 ¨
ᯮª®©­® ª ¥£® ¯à ¢ª¥. ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ¢â®à ¨áâ®ç­¨ª | ‚ è
á®î§­¨ª; ®­ § ¨­â¥à¥á®¢ ­ ¢ ãá¯¥å¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ . à ¢¤ , ¢â®à ­¥ ¢á¥£¤ íªá¯¥àâ ¯® £à ¬¬ ⨪¥...
’à¥â¨© íâ ¯ ®â«¨ç ¥âáï ®â ¢â®à®£® ⥬, çâ® ¨§ ­¥£® ¯®«­®áâìî
¨áª«îç¥­ë ª®­â ªâë á ¢â®à®¬ ¨ á ¨á室­ë¬ ¬ â¥à¨ «®¬. ’¥ªáâ,
á ª®â®àë¬ ¯à®¤®«¦ ¥âáï à ¡®â , 㦥 ¢ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ ­£«¨©áª¨©. Š ª
¨ ­ ¢â®à®¬ íâ ¯¥, §¤¥áì \English comes rst." ‡­ ç¨â, ¢ ¯®«­®¬
ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á FTF, ¢ ¦­¥©è¨© ¤«ï ‚ á í«¥¬¥­â | ¯®-¯à¥¦­¥¬ã
­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª.
Ž¡ëç­® ­ âà¥â쥬 íâ ¯¥ ‚ è ⥪áâ ¯®¯ ¤ ¥â ¨ ª áâ®à®­­¥¬ã
(ç áâ® ý¢ëè¥áâ®ï饬ãþ) । ªâ®àã. ®¬­¨â¥ ® ¯à®ä¥áᨮ­ «ì­®¬
¯ àâ­¥àá⢥ | । ªâ®à ⮦¥ ‚ è á®î§­¨ª (¬¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, ¢ ®â«¨ç¨¥ ®â ¢â®à , á । ªâ®à®¬ ¢¯®«­¥ 㬥áâ­® ®¡á㦤 âì £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯à®¡«¥¬ë).
à¨ á ¬®áâ®ï⥫쭮¬ । ªâ¨à®¢ ­¨¨ ⥪áâ á 楫ìî ¯à¥¢à â¨âì ‚ è English ¢ Good English, à áᬠâਢ ©â¥ à㪮¯¨áì ª ª ­¥§ ¢¨á¨¬®¥ ¨§­ ç «ì­® ­ ¯¨á ­­®¥ ¯®- ­£«¨©áª¨ á®ç¨­¥­¨¥.
®¬­¨â¥ ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨¥ ƒ. ” ã«¥à :
\Good English does consist in the main of short words."

20

ƒ«. 6. Š ª à ¡®â âì ­ ¤ ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¬?

•®à®è® ­ ¯¨á ­­ë© ⥪áâ ­ «î¡®¬ ï§ëª¥ ¯à®á⮠㧭 âì (­®á¨â¥«î í⮣® ï§ëª ) | ¥£® ç¨â âì «¥£ª® ¨ ¯à¨ïâ­®. ‚ £à ¬®â­®©
¨ âé ⥫쭮 ­ ¯¨á ­­®© | ã§ã «ì­®© | à ¡®â¥ ‚ë á 㤮¢®«ìá⢨¥¬
®â¬¥â¨â¥ â®ç­ãî à ááâ ­®¢ªã ¯à¥¤«®£®¢, ¨¤¨®¬ â¨ç­®áâì ®¡®à®â®¢,
‚ ¬ ¤®áâ ¢¨â à ¤®áâì ¯®­¨¬ ­¨¥ ¯à¨ç¨­, ¯® ª®â®àë¬ ¢ë¡à ­ë â
¨«¨ ¨­ ï ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï, ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ ¨«¨ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥. ãª®¢®¤áâ¢ã©â¥áì áâண¨¬ ¢ªãᮬ ¨ §¤à ¢ë¬ á¬ëá«®¬ | ®­¨ ¯à¨¢¥¤ãâ ª ¨áª®¬®¬ã
१ã«ìâ âã.
ƒ« ¢­ ï á«®¦­®áâì âà¥â쥣® íâ ¯ ¢ ⮬, çâ® ¥£® ­¥ å®ç¥âáï § ª ­ç¨¢ âì (¨ ¢ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥, ã«ãçè âì ¬®¦­® ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ «î¡®©
­ ãç­ë© ⥪áâ | í⨬ ­ 㪠®â«¨ç ¥âáï ®â ¡¥««¥âà¨á⨪¨). ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ë¬ í«¥¬¥­â®¬ ª ¦¤®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ï¥âáï
¥£® ª®­¥æ.
Š®­¥æ | ¤¥«ã ¢¥­¥æ.
The end crowns all.
Finis coronat opus.

ƒ« ¢ 7
®¬­¨â¥ à §«¨ç¨ï ­£«¨©áª®£®
¨ àãá᪮£® ï§ëª®¢
à ¢¨«ì­¥¥ ᪠§ âì | ý¯®¬­¨â¥ ® à §«¨ç¨¨þ ­ §¢ ­­ëå ï§ëª®¢. Š®­¥ç­®, ª ª ­£«¨©áª¨©, â ª ¨ àãá᪨© ï§ëª ®¡« ¤ îâ ¯®«­ë¬ ­ ¡®à®¬ á।á⢠¤«ï ᪮«ì 㣮¤­® â®ç­®© ¯¥à¥¤ ç¨ ¨­ä®à¬ 樨. ‚ᥠ¤¥â «¨ ¨ ­î ­áë 祫®¢¥ç¥áª¨å ¬ëá«¥©, ®éã饭¨© ¨ ¯¥à¥¦¨¢ ­¨© ¤¥ª¢ â­® ¢ëà §¨¬ë ¢ ª ¦¤®¬ ¨§ ï§ëª®¢. â® ¤®ª § ­®
á ¬®© ¢®§¬®¦­®áâìî ãᯥ譮£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ á⮫ì á«®¦­ëå á®ç¨­¥­¨©,
ª ª á®­¥âë ˜¥ªá¯¨à ¨«¨ ¯®¢¥á⨠ã誨­ . ¥¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬ëå ­ ãç­ëå á®®¡é¥­¨© ¯à®áâ® ­¥ áãé¥áâ¢ã¥â.
¥á¬®âàï ­ ᪠§ ­­®¥, ¯®«¥§­® ®á®§­ âì, çâ® ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª
| ­¥ àãá᪨© ï§ëª.
Š ᮦ «¥­¨î, ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ ï ¡ ­ «ì­ ï ª®­áâ â æ¨ï ç áâ® ­ 室¨âáï ­ ¯¥à¨ä¥à¨¨ ¯ ¬ï⨠¤ ¦¥ ã áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­® ®¯ëâ­®£® í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª . ®í⮬㠥£® ¯®á¥é îâ ­¥ ¢á¥£¤ «®ª «¨§ã¥¬ë¥
¨¬ ¨««î§¨¨, á®áâ®ï騥 ¢ ⮬ ¨«¨ ᢮¤ï騥áï ª ⮬ã, çâ® ¨¬¥¥âáï
¢§ ¨¬­® ®¤­®§­ ç­®¥ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¥ ¬¥¦¤ã ¬­®£¨¬¨, ¥á«¨ ­¥ ¢á¥¬¨,
­£«¨©áª¨¬¨ ¨ àãá᪨¬¨ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¬¨ ®¡à §®¢ ­¨ï¬¨, ­®à¬ ¬¨, ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï¬¨, £« £®«ì­ë¬¨ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï¬¨ ¨ â. ¤.
Œ¥¦¤ã ⥬ ¢ àãá᪮¬ ­¥â £¥àã­¤¨ï ¨ à⨪«¥©, ­® ¨å ஫¨
ãᯥ譮 ¨á¯®«­ïîâ ¨­ë¥ á।á⢠. ®-àãá᪨ ¬®¦­® ­ ­¨§ë¢ âì
­ à¥ç¨ï ý ¡á®«îâ­® ¯àאַþ, ý¥¤¢ «¨ ᮢ¥à襭­® ¢¥à­®þ ¨ â. ¯. ®­£«¨©áª¨ ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨àãî騥 ¤à㣠¤à㣠-ly words ¢ á⨫¥ \absolutely
truly" ­¥¯à¨¥¬«¥¬ë. „®¯ãá⨬ ®¡®à®â ý¤®ª ¦¥¬ A ­ «®£¨ç­® B þ
¨ ¢¥áì¬ á¯®à­ äà § \prove A similarly to B ." ®-àãá᪨ £®¢®àïâ:
ýà § A , â® B þ. ãª¢ «ì­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ \since A , then B " | ­¥¤®¯ãáâ¨-

22

ƒ«. 7.  §«¨ç¨¥ ï§ëª®¢

¬ë© ᮫¥æ¨§¬, ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ïî騩 ®¤­ã ¨§ ⨯¨ç­ëå ®è¨¡®ª ­ ãç­ëå
¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢. ‚ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥ ¯¥à¥¤ ýçâ®þ ¨ ýª®â®àë©þ, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®,
¥áâì § ¯ïâ ï. ‚ ­£«¨©áª®¬ § ¯ïâ ï ¯¥à¥¤ \that" ¨ \which" áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­® ।ª ¨ ç áâ® ­¥á¥â ­¥ä®à¬ «ì­ãî á¬ëá«®¢ãî ­ £à㧪ã.
¥à¥¢®¤ â¥à¬¨­ ýíªá¯®­¥­â þ ª ª \female exponent" | ¡áâà ªâ­ë© ª®­âà¯à¨¬¥à, ®­ ¢àï¤ «¨ § 䨪á¨à®¢ ­ ¢ ⥪ã饩 ¯à ªâ¨ª¥.
Ž¤­ ª® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ á«®¢ \exponent" ¢¬¥áâ® ¯à ¢¨«ì­®£® \exponential" | ⨯¨ç­ ï ®è¨¡ª í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª®¢.
®«¥¥ ⮣®, ­¥ª®â®àë¥ á«®¢ ­¥¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬ë ­ ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª
¨­ ç¥ ª ª ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï¬¨ (¯à¨éãà¨âìáï, ä®àâ®çª , ¢ «¥­ª¨ ¨ â. ¯.).
ª¢¨¢ «¥­âë ¬­®£¨å á«®¢ ¨¬¥îâ ­¥ íª¢¨¢ «¥­â­ë¥ áä¥àë ¤¥©á⢨ï:
àãá᪮¥ ýª ªþ | íâ® ¨ \how", ¨ \as", ¨ \like"; outstanding advances
| íâ® ¨ ¢ë¤ î騥áï ãᯥå¨, ¨ ­¥®¯« 祭­ë¥ ¢ ­áë ¨ â. ¯. Œ®¦­®
᪠§ âì: ý¨§-§ ®â¬¥ç¥­­ëå ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢þ, ­® ­¥«ì§ï ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥
í⮣® ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï ¢¬¥áâ® ý¨§-§ þ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì \behind" ¨«¨ \from
behind" ¨ â. ¯. ýŽ¡à â­ ï äã­ªæ¨ïþ | íâ® \inverse function", ­®
ý®¡à â­®¥ ­¥à ¢¥­á⢮þ | \reverse inequality", ý®¡à â­ ï ⥮६ þ
| \converse theorem", ­ ª®­¥æ, ®¡à â­ ï áâ®à®­ ª ॢ¥àáã (®à«ã)
¬®­¥âë, ¥¥ ¢¥àá, | íâ® obverse.
‚®â ¥é¥ ª« áá¨ç¥áª¨© ¯à¨¬¥à: ᦠâì à㪨 | to grip arms, ­®
¯®¦ âì à㪨 | to shake hands. ˆ§ ý®ª®­­®©þ ⥬ë | ã­¨¢¥àá «ì­®¥
àãá᪮¥ ®ª­®, ­ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥ íâ® casement window, ã ­£«¨ç ­ (¨ ¬¥à¨ª ­æ¥¢) ¡ë¢ ¥â ¥é¥ ¨ sash window. à ¢¨«ì­®: comprehensible
argument ¨ understandable behaviour. ¥à¥áâ ­®¢ª ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå
­¥¢®§¬®¦­ .
Žâ«¨ç¨ï ¢áâà¥ç îâáï ¢ á ¬ëå ­¥®¦¨¤ ­­ëå £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å
ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå. Š®­¥ç­®, ¯à® ¦¥á⪨© ¯®à冷ª ç«¥­®¢ ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ¯®¬­¨â ª ¦¤ë© í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª | à á宦¤¥­¨ï¬¨
§¤¥áì ¥£® ­¥ 㤨¢¨èì. ‚®â ¡®«¥¥ â®­ª¨© ¯à¨¬¥à. ®-àãá᪨ á«¥¤ãî騥 ¤¢¥ äà §ë ᮢ¥à襭­® ¯à ¢®¬¥à­ë:
®«ã稬 ®¯¥à â®à, ¤¥©áâ¢ãî騩 ¨§ X ¢ Y.
®«ã稬 ®¯¥à â®à, ª®â®àë© ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â ¨§ X ¢ Y.
à¨ í⮬ ¯¥à¢®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨ ¤ ¦¥ ¯à¥¤¯®çâ¨â¥«ì­¥¥ ¢â®à®£® (¢ á¢ï§¨ ᮠ᢮¥© ¡®«ì襩 ªà ⪮áâìî).  áᬮâਬ
¢ ਠ­âë ý᪮ண®þ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ :
Obtain an operator acting from X into Y.
Obtain an operator that is acting from X into Y.

ƒ«. 7.  §«¨ç¨¥ ï§ëª®¢

23

¥ ᮢᥬ ®ç¥¢¨¤­®, çâ® ¤®¯ãá⨬® ⮫쪮 ¯®á«¥¤­¥¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥.
¥à¢ë© ®¡à §¥æ, å®âï ¨ ⨯¨ç¥­ ¢ ¯à ªâ¨ª¥ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ , ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ ¥âáï (¢® ¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥, ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¢®á¯à¨­ïâ)
ª ª ý¯á¥¢¤® ­£«¨©áª®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥þ, ª ª £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª ï ®è¨¡ª
| ᮫¥æ¨§¬.  §êïá­¥­¨¥: §¤¥áì ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­® ­¥¯à¨¥¬«¥¬®¥ £« £®«ì­®¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥: äà § \an operator acting from X into Y" ᮤ¥à¦¨â noun, ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­­®¥ â ª ­ §ë¢ ¥¬ë¬ non nite ing-clause,
â ª¨¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ¨áª«îç¥­ë ¨§ ᯨ᪠¤®¯®«­¥­¨© âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® £« £®« obtain ã§ãᮬ | ­®à¬ ⨢­ë¬ á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨¥¬ |
­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª . ®«¥¥ ⮣®, ®¡®à®â \acting from X into Y" ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¢®á¯à¨­ïâ ¨ ª ª ®â¤¥«ì­®¥ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ⨯ àãá᪮£® ý¤¥©áâ¢ãï ¨§ X ¢ Yþ, ç⮠ᮧ¤ ¥â § ¯à¥é¥­­ë© íä䥪â
\dangling participle" | ý¢¨áïçãîþ (¨ ¡¥áá¬ëá«¥­­ãî) ª®­áâàãªæ¨î.
ˆ­â¥à¥á­®, çâ® ¢á¥ âਠ¯®å®¦¨¥ äà §ë
An operator acting from X into Y is obtained.
An operator that is acting from X into Y is obtained.
An operator is obtained that is acting from X into Y.
ª®à४â­ë.∗
‘¯¨á®ª à §«¨ç¨© ­¥áª®­ç ¥¬!

∗

Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, «ãç訩 ¢ ਠ­â ¯¥à¥¢®¤ äà §ë ¨§ ­ 襣® ¯à¨¬¥à ¨­®©:
\Obtain an operator from X to Y."

ƒ« ¢ 8
‚ ¬ ­ã¦­ë
å®à®è¨© á«®¢ àì ¨ ®¡à §¥æ
¥ â®ç­¥¥ «¨ ᪠§ âì, å®à®è¨© ®¡à §¥æ ¨ á«®¢ àì? € ¬®¦¥â
¡ëâì, ®¡à §¥æ ¨«¨ å®à®è¨© á«®¢ àì? Žâ¢¥â ­ ®¡ í⨠¢®¯à®á ®¡é¨© | ý­¥âþ.
Ž¡à §¥æ, â. ¥. ®¤­ «î¡¨¬ ï ‚ ¬¨ | å®à®è ï-¤«ï-‚ á | ª­¨£
­ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ (¨«¨ ­¥áª®«ìª® â ª¨å ª­¨£) ¯® ¯à®¡«¥¬ ⨪¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬®£® ‚ ¬¨ ¬ â¥à¨ « , | íâ®, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ¤®áâ㯭ë©
‚ ¬ ¨áâ®ç­¨ª. ‚ ­¥¬ ¥áâì ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ ï â¥à¬¨­®«®£¨ï, 䨣ãà¨àãîâ
ä ¬¨«¨¨ ¢â®à®¢ § ª®­®¢, ä®à¬ã«, ⥮६, ¯®­ï⨩ ¨ â. ¯., ¬­®£®
áâ ­¤ àâ­ëå ®¡®à®â®¢.  §¢ ­­ë¥ ­¥®æ¥­¨¬ë¥ ª ç¥á⢠ç१¢ëç ©­® ¢ ¦­ë ¤«ï ‚ á ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥. ’ ª®© ®¡à §¥æ ­¥¢®§¬®¦­® § ¬¥­¨âì ­¨ ®¤­¨¬ ®¡é¨¬ á«®¢ ६.
‘¯¥æ¨ «¨§¨à®¢ ­­ë¥ á«®¢ ਠ⨯ €­£«®-àãá᪨© ⥯«®â¥å­¨ç¥áª¨© á«®¢ àì, á«®¢ àì ˆ«¨­£ã®àá (V. Illingworth, The Penguin Dictionary of Physics) ¨«¨ ¨§¢¥áâ­ë¥ ¬ ⥬ ⨪ ¬ €­£«®-àãá᪨© á«®¢ àì ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨å â¥à¬¨­®¢, á«®¢ àì ‹®ã®â¥à (A. J. Lohwater's
Russian-English Dictionary of the Mathematical Sciences) ¨ â. ¤. ¯à¨
¢á¥© ¨å ¯®«¥§­®á⨠­¥ ¯®ªàë¢ îâ ¨ ­¥ ¬®£ãâ ¯®ªàëâì ¯®âॡ­®á⥩,
¢®§­¨ª îé¨å ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饩 ¯¥à¨®¤¨ª¨.
®á«¥¤­¨© ª®­âà®«ì ¯à¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ â¥à¬¨­ | ®¡à §¥æ, ­¥¤ ¢­ïï
¬®­®£à ä¨ï, ­ ¯¨á ­­ ï å®à®è¨¬ ¢â®à®¬, ¤«ï ª®â®à®£® ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª ï¥âáï த­ë¬ ¨«¨, ¯® ªà ©­¥© ¬¥à¥, ®á­®¢­ë¬.
®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ¢â®àë ­ ãç­ëå à ¡®â ­¥ ¯® «¨­£¢¨á⨪¥ | íâ®,
ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ­¥ «¨­£¢¨áâë.
‚ ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ‚ë ¯à®¢¥àï¥â¥ ¯à ¢®¯¨á ­¨¥ àãá᪮£®

ƒ«. 8. ‘«®¢ àì ¨ ®¡à §¥æ

25

á«®¢ ¢ ®à䮣à ä¨ç¥áª®¬ á«®¢ à¥, ¢ á«®¢ ॠŽ¦¥£®¢ ¨ â. ¯. ˆ­®£¤ ¢ । ªæ¨ïå á¯¥æ¨ «¨§¨à®¢ ­­ëå ­ ãç­ëå ¦ãà­ «®¢ ᬮâàïâ
¢ ã祡­¨ª £à ¬¬ ⨪¨ ¨ á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª ⨯ ý‘«¨â­®-à §¤¥«ì­®þ. „¥«® ¢ ⮬, çâ® ¢â®àë ­ ãç­ëå áâ ⥩ ¨ ª­¨£ ­ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥ ­¥
¢á¥£¤ ¯¨èãâ ¯®-àãá᪨ ¡á®«îâ­® ¡¥§ã¯à¥ç­®. ’® ¦¥ á⮨⠮⭥áâ¨
¨ ª ¯¨èã騬 ¯®- ­£«¨©áª¨.
—१¢ëç ©­® ¢ ¦­® ­¥ § ¡ë¢ âì, çâ® ¤«ï ‚ á ­£«¨©áª¨© | ­¥
த­®© ï§ëª, ¯®í⮬ã âà㤭®á⥩ ¢ ¯à ¢¨«ì­®¬ á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨¨
㠂 á ­¥¬ «®. ‡­ ç¨â, ‚ ¬ ­ã¦¥­ å®à®è¨© ®¡é¨© á«®¢ àì. Š ᮦ «¥­¨î, è¨à®ª® à á¯à®áâà ­¥­­ë¥ ¤¢ãï§ëç­ë¥ á«®¢ ਠ®«ì让
­£«®-àãá᪨© á«®¢ àì, á«®¢ àì Œî««¥à ¨ â. ¯., ¯à¨ ¢á¥å ¨å ¤®á⮨­á⢠å, ­¥¤®áâ â®ç­ë ¤«ï ‚ è¨å 楫¥©.
‚ ¬ ­ã¦¥­ ®¤­®ï§ëç­ë© á«®¢ àì ª« áá \For Advanced Learners" â ª®£® ã஢­ï, ª ª The Concise Oxford Dictionary, •®à­¡¨, Š®««¨­§ ¨«¨ ‹®­£¬ ­. ‚ ­ã¦­®¬ ‚ ¬ | å®à®è¥¬ | á«®¢ ॠ¤®«¦­ë ¡ëâì 㪠§ ­¨ï ® ⨯¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£® (countable, uncountable),
® ª« áá¨ä¨ª 樨 £« £®«®¢ (¯® £à㯯 ¬ transitive, intransitive; ¯® ä®à¬ ¬ £« £®«ì­ëå ã¯à ¢«¥­¨© | verb patterns) ¨ â. ¯.
¥à¥¨§¤ ­­ë¥ ¢ ®â¥ç¥á⢥­­ëå ¨§¤ ⥫ìáâ¢ å ¤¢ãå⮬­ë¥ á«®¢ à¨, ¨§¢¥áâ­ë¥ ¢ ®¡¨å®¤¥ ª ª •®à­¡¨ ¨ ‹®­£¬ ­, ¢¯®«­¥ ‚ á ãáâà®ïâ.  §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¨å ­ «®£¨ ¨ ¢¥àᨨ, ®¯ã¡«¨ª®¢ ­­ë¥ ¢ ‘˜€ ¨ ‚¥«¨ª®¡à¨â ­¨¨, ¯à¨¥¬«¥¬ë ¥é¥ ¢ ¡®«ì襩 ¬¥à¥.

‚ å®à®è¥¬ á«®¢ ॠ­¥â ¡¥á¯®«¥§­®© ¤«ï ‚ á ¨­ä®à¬ 樨 | ¢­¨¬ ⥫쭮 ¨§ãç¨â¥ ¢á¥ ¯à ¢¨« ¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï ‚ 訬 á«®-

¢ ६, ã᢮©â¥ §­ 祭¨ï ¢á¥å ᨬ¢®«®¢ ¨ á«ã¦¥¡­ëå á«®¢.
 ª®­¥æ, ¯®¬­¨â¥ | á«®¢ ਠᮧ¤ îâáï âà㤮¬ «î¤¥©, «î¤ï¬
᢮©á⢥­­® ®è¨¡ âìáï.
à®¤®«¦ ï (¢ ¯®à浪¥ ¨áª«î祭¨ï) ¯®è«®¢ âãî ¯à ªâ¨ªã ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï à á宦¨å ä®à¨§¬®¢, ­ ç âãî ¢ ¯à¥¤ë¤ã饬 ¡§ æ¥,
®â¬¥â¨¬, çâ® ¨ ­ ᮫­æ¥ ¥áâì ¯ïâ­ . ‘ª ¦¥¬, ¢ á«®¢ ॠŒî««¥à
­¥¢¥à­® ­ ¯¨á ­® á«®¢® lemmata, ¢ ®«ì讬 ­£«®-àãá᪮¬ á«®¢ ॠ¨¬¥¥âáï ­¥â®ç­®áâì ¢® ¢§ ¨¬®®â­®è¥­¨¨ á«®¢ reversal ¨ reversion.
®¬¨¬® ⮣®, ¢â®àë à §­ëå á«®¢ ३ ¨¬¥îâ ®â­î¤ì ­¥ ⮦¤¥á⢥­­ë¥ ¢§£«ï¤ë. Œ®à «ì ®¡é¥¨§¢¥áâ­ : 㬠å®à®è®, ¤¢ | «ãçè¥!
“ç¥­ë¥ áâ६ïâáï ®¡®¡é âì. ˆ¬ ¡«¨§ª¨ ¯®¨áª¨ áªàëâëå § ª®­®¬¥à­®á⥩, ¬¥â®¤ ¨­¤ãªæ¨¨ (¤ ¦¥ ­¥¯®«­®©) ¨ à áá㦤¥­¨ï ¯®
­ «®£¨¨. ¥à¥¢®¤ (¨ ®á®¡¥­­® í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨©) | ­¥ ¯®¤å®¤ï騩
¯®«¨£®­ ¤«ï ॠ«¨§ 樨 ¯®¤®¡­ëå áâ६«¥­¨©.

26

ƒ«. 8. ‘«®¢ àì ¨ ®¡à §¥æ

Ÿ§ëª ᯥæ¨ä¨ç¥­ ªà ©­¨¬ ᢮¥®¡à §¨¥¬ ¨ ç१¢ëç ©­® ¢ë᮪¨¬ ã஢­¥¬ ­ ª®¯«¥­­®© á«®¦­®áâ¨. ‹®£¨ª ¨ à 樮­ «ì­®áâì ¢
­¥¬ ç áâ® ­¥ ᮡ«î¤ îâáï.
\The conventions of human behaviour are not all determined by
logic and reason and language is a part of human behaviour."
(R. Quirk, The Use of English)
‡ ª®­®¬¥à­®á⨠ï§ëª 祫®¢¥ªã, ¤«ï ª®â®à®£® ®­ ­¥ ï¥âáï த­ë¬, ­¥ ¢á¥£¤ ¯®­ïâ­ë. à¨¬¥à®¢ ­ àã襭¨© ä®à¬ «ì­® ¢®§¬®¦­ëå ý®¡é¨å ¯à ¢¨«þ ᪮«ì 㣮¤­®.
’ ª, ¬®¦­® ᪠§ âì \The above demonstrates" ¨ ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®
\ The below demonstrates." ¥«ì§ï £®¢®à¨âì \ I dislike to state", ­®
\I like to state" | ®¡ëç­ ï ­®à¬ .
® ­ «®£¨¨ á \there are", \there was" ¢ íª§¨á⥭樮­ «ì­ëå
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ äà §ë ⨯ \there exist", \there appear."
Ž¤­ ª® ®¡®à®âë ¢à®¤¥ \There holds the next theorem", á¢ï§ ­­ë¥
á í¬ä â¨ç¥áª®© ¨­¢¥àᨥ©, ®¡ëç­® áç¨â îâ ­¥¦¥« ⥫ì­ë¬¨.
\Hardly" ®§­ ç ¥â ý¥¤¢ þ, ­¥ ýᨫ쭮þ. à¥¤«®£ \excepting"
¢¬¥áâ® \except" ¯à¨­ïâ® ç é¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¢ á®ç¥â ­¨ïå \always
excepting" ¨«¨ \not excepting", ­ à¥ç¨ï \free" ¨ \freely" ­¥ ⮦¤¥á⢥­­ë. ˆ â. ¤., ¨ â. ¯.
Ž¯ëâ ¯®ª §ë¢ ¥â, çâ® ¬­®£¨¥ ®è¨¡ª¨ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª®¢ ¢®§­¨ª îâ ¢ १ã«ìâ ⥠­¥ã¤ ç­ëå ®¡®¡é¥­¨©. ®¬­¨â¥ ®¡
í⮬.
à®¢¥àì⥠‚ èã £¨¯®â¥§ã ¯® á«®¢ àî!
 ©¤¨â¥ ⮦¤¥á⢥­­ãî ª®¯¨î ¢ ®¡à §æ¥!

ƒ« ¢ 9
‚ ¬ ¡ã¤¥â ¯®«¥§¥­ ã祡­¨ª
­£«¨©áª®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¨
à¨ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ¢¯®«­¥ ¬®¦­® ®¡®©â¨áì å®à®è¨¬
á«®¢ ६ ¨ ®¡à §æ®¬. ¥¨áâॡ¨¬ ï âï£ ª ᮢ¥à襭áâ¢ã ᯮᮡ­ ¯®¤â®«ª­ãâì ‚ á ª ¯®¨áªã â®ç­®£® ä®à¬ «ì­®£® ¯à ¢¨« . ‚ë
­ ©¤¥â¥ ¥£® á® ¢à¥¬¥­¥¬ ¢ ¯®¤å®¤ï饬 ã祡­¨ª¥.
‚ᥠàãá᪨¥ ã祭ë¥, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, §­ ª®¬¨«¨áì á àãá᪮© £à ¬¬ ⨪®©. Ž­¨ §­ îâ, çâ® ¯®¨áª ­ã¦­®£® ¯à ¢¨« ¯® á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª ¬
ᮢᥬ ­¥ ¯à®áâ. ¥â ®á­®¢ ­¨© áç¨â âì, çâ® â® ¦¥ ­¥ ®â­®á¨âáï
¨ ª ­£«¨©áª®¬ã ï§ëªã.
¥ ¯¨è¨â¥ ­¨ç¥£® ­¥§­ ª®¬®£® ‚ ¬ ¯® á«®¢ àî ¨«¨ ( «ãçè¥ ¨)
®¡à §æã, ­¥ ­ ©¤ï â®ç­®£® 㪠§ ­¨ï ¢ ¢â®à¨â¥â­®¬ ã祡­¨ª¥ £à ¬¬ ⨪¨, â ª®¬, ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, ª ª A University Grammar of English ( ¢â®àë: R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Starvik; ­¨¦¥ Quirk
et al.).
‡­ ª®¬á⢮ (¨«¨ ¢®§®¡­®¢«¥­¨¥ §­ ª®¬á⢠) á ®á­®¢ ¬¨ £à ¬¬ ⨪¨ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª ¯®§¢®«¨â ‚ ¬ «ãçè¥ à ᯮ§­ ¢ âì ¯®¤¢®¤­ë¥ ª ¬­¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ , 㢥«¨ç¨â ‚ èã 㢥७­®áâì ¢ ¤®¡à®ª ç¥á⢥­­®á⨠१ã«ìâ ⮢ ‚ 襣® âà㤠. ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨, ¢ ã祡­¨ª¥ ‚ë
ᬮ¦¥â¥ ®¡­ à㦨âì â ª®¥ ä®à¬ «ì­®¥ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª®¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­¨¥:
\Inde nite ONE means `people in general', implying inclusion of the
speaker."
Ž¡¤ã¬ ¢ ¥£®, ‚ë ¡®«¥¥ ®á®§­ ­­® ®â­¥á¥â¥áì ª æ¨â¨à®¢ ­­®¬ã ¢ëè¥

28

ƒ«. 9. “祡­¨ª £à ¬¬ ⨪¨

ᮢ¥â㠏. • «¬®è ¨§¡¥£ âì ®¡®à®â®¢ ⨯ \one thus has proved...".
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ¢á¥ ¦¥, çâ® ª­¨£¨ ®âà ¦ îâ ¢§£«ï¤ë ¨å ¢â®à®¢
¨, §­ ç¨â, ¬®£ãâ ᮤ¥à¦ âì (¨ ®¡ëç­® ᮤ¥à¦ â) à §«¨ç­ë¥ ¬­¥­¨ï
®¡ ®¤­®¬ ¯à¥¤¬¥â¥. ‚®â å à ªâ¥à­ë© ¯à¨¬¥à.
\There is a rule | a very simple rule: each other applies to two
persons, animals, or things; one another to three or more."
(E. Partridge, Usage and Abusage)
\There is no basis for the superstition that each other should refer to two people or things, and one another to more than two."
(Longman Guide to English Usage)
\If there is any di erence, it seems to be that we prefer one another (like one) when we are making very general statements...."
(M. Swan, Practical English Usage)
 §ã¬¥¥âáï, å®à®è¨© ã祡­¨ª £à ¬¬ ⨪¨ ‚ ¬ ­¥ ¯®¢à¥¤¨â. ᫨
¦¥ ‚ ¬ ­¥ ¯®¢¥§«® ¨ 㠂 á ­¥â ¯®¤ à㪮© ¤®«¦­®© ª­¨£¨, ‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥
ãâ¥è âì á¥¡ï ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨¥¬ „¦. Žà¢¥«« :
\...correct grammar and syntax ... are of no importance so long as
one makes one's meaning clear."

ƒ« ¢ 10
„®«®© ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æë!
â®â ¯à¨§ë¢ ¨­â¥à­ 樮­ «¥­, ¯®â®¬ã ¯®«¥§¥­ ¯à¨ à ¡®â¥ ¨ á
àãá᪨¬¨, ¨ á ­£«¨©áª¨¬¨ ⥪áâ ¬¨. Š ª ¨ ¢á类¥ ®¡é¥¥ á㦤¥­¨¥,
­ è «®§ã­£ ¢ã«ì£ ७ ¨«¨, ¢ëà ¦ ïáì ¬ï£ç¥, ­ã¦¤ ¥âáï ¢ ãâ®ç­¥­¨ïå. Š®­¥ç­®, ®­ ­¥ ®â­®á¨âáï ª ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï¬ á«¥¤ãî饣® ⨯ :
ýƒ«®ª ï ªã§¤à è⥪® ¡ã¤« ­ã« ¡®ªà ¨ ªã¤àïç¨â ¡®ªà¥­ª þ.
(‹. ‚. ™¥à¡ )
\Plome the pleakful croatation will be ruggling polanians engleshably in the rit." (R. Quirk)
\Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gire and gimble in the wale...." (L. Carrol)
¥á¬®âàï ­ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ¯à¨¬¥àë, ®¥ ®âáãâá⢨¥ á¬ëá« ¨«¨
¤¢ãá¬ë᫨æ | ¢¥áª¨¥ ®á­®¢ ­¨ï ¤«ï ¯¥à¥á¬®âà ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
 ¨¡®«¥¥ ⨯¨ç­ë¥ ¨««îáâà 樨, á¢ï§ ­­ë¥ á ¡¥áá¬ëá«¨æ ¬¨,
®â­®áïâáï ª ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï¬, ¨á¯®«ì§ãî騬 ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«®,
¨ ª ¢¨áï稬 (¯®- ­£«¨©áª¨: dangling ¨«¨ unattached) ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï¬.
“ç¥­ë¥ ¯à¨¢ëª«¨ ª ¯à ¢¨«ã ®¡®¡é¥­¨ï. ”à §ã ý®¯¥à â®à ¨¬¥¥â ᨬ¢®«þ ®­¨ ¯®¤á®§­ ⥫쭮 ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ îâ ª ª ý¤«ï ª ¦¤®£® ®¯¥à â®à áãé¥áâ¢ã¥â ᢮© ᨬ¢®«þ. à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ý®¯¥à â®àë ¨¬¥îâ
᢮¨ ᨬ¢®«ëþ, ¯à¨§¢ ­­®¥ ¢ëà §¨âì â®â ¦¥ á¬ëá«, ­ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥
ᮤ¥à¦¨â ¤®¡ ¢®ç­ãî ­¥®¤­®§­ ç­®áâì (¢ ਠ­â ýª ¦¤ë© ®¯¥à â®à
¨¬¥¥â ᢮¨ ᨬ¢®«ëþ ®â­î¤ì ­¥ ¨áª«î祭). â®â ¦¥ íä䥪â á®åà ­ï¥âáï ¨ ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥. Œ¥¦¤ã ⥬ ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ç áâ®

30

ƒ«. 10. ¥áá¬ë᫨æë

¢®§­¨ª ¥â ᮡ« §­ ¯¥à¥©â¨ ª ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¬ã ç¨á«ã, çâ®¡ë ­¥ § ¡®â¨âìáï ®¡ à⨪«ïå. Ž¡é¨© à¥æ¥¯â | ýª®£¤ 㠂 á ¥áâì ¢ë¡®à,
¥¤¨­á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«® ¯à¥¤¯®çâ¨â¥«ì­¥¥ ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®£®þ.
‚¨áï稥 ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨, ¯®à®¦¤ î騥 ¬­®£¨¥ ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æë, ç áâ® ¢áâà¥ç îâáï ¢ ¯à ªâ¨ª¥ àãá᪮£® ¨ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª®¢.
 ¡®â ï ­ ¤ ᢮¥© ¯à®£à ¬¬®©, ­ ¬ ᨫ쭮 ¯®¢¥§«®.
‡ ¢¥àè ï ¯à®æ¥áá ¢ëç¨á«¥­¨ï, ¨­â¥£à « (5) ¯à¨­¨¬ ¥â ¢¨¤ (8).
 § x ∈ Y , â® ®­ ­¥ ¯ãáâ.
Ž­ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨« A ª ª ¤®«¦­®áâ­®¥ «¨æ®.
After several weeks of strenuous e orts the diculty appears illusory.
The operator T de nes a derivation T acting from X to Y.
After integrating the above relation, it occurs to be bounded.
On solving these equations the norm of the resolvent is nite.
I send this message to you as an occasional advisor.
à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ äà §ë ¤®áâ ¢«ïî⠯ਬ¥àë ¢¨áïç¨å ª®­áâàãªæ¨©. ˆå
¯®à®ç­®áâì ®ç¥¢¨¤­ | ¯® ®¡ëç­®¬ã ¯®­¨¬ ­¨î ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ᮤ¥à¦¨â § ª®­ç¥­­ãî ¬ëá«ì. ‹¥£ª® ¯à¥¤¯®«®¦¨âì, çâ® â¥à¬¨­ ý§ ª®­ç¥­­ ï ¬ëá«ìþ ¨áª«îç ¥â ¯®«­ãî ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æã ¨«¨ ¬¡¨¢ «¥­â­®áâì á¬ëá« . ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ª ª ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬, â ª ¨ ¢ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â ä®à¬ «ì­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®: ¥á«¨ ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ ®¡®à®â¥

¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ® ­¥ ¢ëà ¦¥­®, â® ®­® ý¯® 㬮«ç ­¨îþ ᮢ¯ ¤ ¥â á ¯®¤«¥¦ 騬 ®á­®¢­®£® ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.

Ž¯ á­®áâì ¢¨áïç¨å ª®­áâàãªæ¨© ¢ ⮩ «¥£ª®áâ¨, á ª®â®à®© ®­¨
¯à®­¨ª îâ ¢ ⥪áâ. à¨ç¨­ í⮩ ¡®«¥§­¨ ¯à®áâ | ¬ëá«ì ¢â®à
(¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª ) ¤¢¨¦¥âáï ¡ëáâ॥ ¯¥à (ª« ¢¨è ª®¬¯ìîâ¥à ¨«¨
¯¨èã饩 ¬ 設ª¨ ¨ â. ¯.). ˆ§¢¥áâ­® ¨ «¥ª àá⢮ ®â ®¡á㦤 ¥¬®©
¡®«¥§­¨. ¥æ¥¯â ¯à®áâ: ¢­¨¬ ⥫쭮 ¯à®çâ¨â¥ ‚ è ⥪áâ.
áâì ¥é¥ ®¤­® á।á⢮ | ¯à¥¢à â¨â¥ ‚ èã ¢¨áïçãî ª®­áâàãªæ¨î ¢ ¡á®«îâ­ãî.
‘⮨⠭ ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® ¡á®«îâ­ ï ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï á®á⮨⠢ ¯à¨á®¥¤¨­¥­¨¨ ª ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨î ¤à㣮£® (¢ ஫¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢥­­®© äà §ë) á ¯®¬®éìî with ¨«¨ without ¨«¨ ¢®¢á¥ ¡¥§ ¯à¥¤«®£ . ‚ ¯à¨á®¥¤¨­¥­­®¬ ®¡®à®â¥ ¨¬¥¥âáï ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥, ¢ëà ¦¥­­®¥ noun ¨«¨ pronoun, ¢â®àë¬ ý¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­ë¬þ í«¥¬¥­â®¬ (¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¨áª«î祭¨ï
¨§ ®¡ëç­®£® ¯®à浪 ) á«ã¦¨â bare in nitive (¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢ ¡¥§ ç áâ¨æë

ƒ«. 10. ¥áá¬ë᫨æë

31

to), ¨«¨ ing-ä®à¬ , ¨«¨ ed-participle, ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮¥ ¨«¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮.  ¯à¨¬¥à:
We integrating the above relation, it occurs to be bounded.
An operator acting continuously, the unit ball transforms into a
bounded set.
The expression B substituted for A , the procedure gives an extension of A .
With A valid, B results.
Inequality (3.5) at hand, the rest of the proof is easy.
To speak precisely, this is legitimate.
The square is dissected into small parts, no two of the same size.
The space X appears, the metric ρ on X.
à¨ ­¥ª®â®à®© áâà ­­®á⨠¤«ï ­®á¨â¥«ï àãá᪮£® ï§ëª ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ®¡à §æë 㬥áâ­ë ¢ «î¡®¬ áâண® ä®à¬ «ì­®¬ ­£«¨©áª®¬
⥪á⥠(¢ ãáâ­®© à¥ç¨ ª ¡á®«îâ­®© ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ®¡ëç­® ­¥ ¯à¨¡¥£ îâ). Š ª ¢¨¤­® ¨§ ¯à¨¬¥à®¢, ¡á®«îâ­ ï ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï ¬®¦¥â
¢ë§¢ âì §âà㤭¥­¨ï ¢ ¯®­¨¬ ­¨¨, â ª ª ª áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­® ¤ «¥ª ®â
®¡ë¤¥­­®© ¯à ªâ¨ª¨. ‚ í⮩ á¢ï§¨ ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ¥¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ¤®áâ â®ç­®
।ª® ¨ ®á¬®âà¨â¥«ì­®. ‚¥à­ë© ¯à¨§­ ª §«®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨© | ç áâë¥
\being", à §¡à®á ­­ë¥ ¯® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ã.
‚ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ¬­®£¨¥ äà §ë, ᮤ¥à¦ 騥 ­¥ª®â®àë¥ á«®¢ , ®ª ­ç¨¢ î騥áï ­ -ing ¨ -ed ¨ ᮧ¤ î騥 ¢¨¤¨¬®áâì ¢¨áïç¨å
ª®­áâàãªæ¨©, áãé¥áâ¢ãîâ ­ ¡á®«îâ­® § ª®­­ëå ®á­®¢ ­¨ïå.
Š â ª¨¬ á«®¢ ¬ ®â­®áïâáï â¥, çâ® ¯¥à¥áâ «¨ ¡ëâì ⮫쪮 participles ¨ ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ ¢ ï§ëª¥ â ª¦¥ ¢ ஫¨ prepositions (¯à¥¤«®£®¢)
¨«¨ conjunctions (á®î§®¢): according (to), barring, considering, failing,
following, including, owing (to), regarding, assuming, granted (that),
provided (that), providing (that), seeing, supposing, etc.
‘«¥¤ãî騥 ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¡á®«îâ­® § ª®­­ë:
Provided that identity (3.5) holds, T is a Hermitian operator.
Assuming the Continuum Hypothesis, the two cardinals are equal.
(‘à. àãá᪮¥: ý¥á¬®âàï ­ ®âáãâá⢨¥ ¯®«­®âë ¨­â¥£à « á室¨âáïþ.)

32

ƒ«. 10. ¥áá¬ë᫨æë

‡¤¥áì ¦¥ ¤«ï ¯®«­®âë 㬥áâ­® ®â¬¥â¨âì á«¥¤ãî騥 ¤¢ á㦤¥­¨ï
(E. Partridge):
provided and providing are less correct (and often less clear) than
provided that and providing that in the sense \it being stipulated
that."
...it is, however, both permissible and indeed usual to omit that
when the sense is \on condition that, in case that, if only."
€­ «®£¨ç­®, ª®à४â­ë¬¨ ïîâáï äà §ë, ¢ ª®â®àëå ®âáãâáâ¢ãî饥 ¢ ¢¨áï祬 äà £¬¥­â¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 | íâ® ¢â®à (¨«¨ ¢â®à᪮¥
‘):
Putting it otherwise, a contradiction results.
Using the lattice structure of A , it is easily seen that B has the
nite intersection property.
‚ ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ‚ è ¯à¨­æ¨¯ | ý­¥â ¢¨áï稬 ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï¬!þ
„®«®© ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æë!

ƒ« ¢ 11
“¬®«ç ­¨¥ | ®â«¨ç­ë© ¯à¨¥¬
¯¥à¥¢®¤
‘â¨«ì ­ ãç­®£® àãá᪮£® ï§ëª å à ªâ¥à¨§ã¥âáï ¨§¢¥áâ­®© ¬­®£®á«®¢­®áâìî. ãª¢ «ì­®¥ á«¥¤®¢ ­¨¥ ®à¨£¨­ «ã ᮧ¤ ¥â íä䥪â
ýᢥà寥ॢ®¤ þ. ‚¯®«­¥ ­®à¬ «ì­ ï äà § ý¯à¨¬¥­ïï ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ¢ëè¥ à¥§ã«ìâ âë, ­¥âà㤭® ¯à®¢¥à¨âì, çâ® ¢¥à­ ’¥®à¥¬ 1þ
¯à¨ ­¥ã¬¥áâ­®¬ áâ à ­¨¨ ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ¨ ¯ã­ªâã 樨 §¢ãç¨â: \On using the results, stated above, for one it is easy to prove, that the theorem,
numbered 1, is true."  §ã¬¥¥âáï, â ª ¯¨á âì ­¥«ì§ï. „®áâ â®ç­® ᪠§ âì çâ®-â® ¯à®á⮥ ¢ á⨫¥: \By above results, Theorem 1 is readily
available." Œ®¦­® ¢ë¡à âì ¥é¥ ¡®«¥¥ ¤ «¥ª¨© ®â ®à¨£¨­ « ¢ ਠ­â
\Theorem 1 is now easy." ‚¯à®ç¥¬, « ¯¨¤ à­®áâì ¬®¦¥â à §®§«¨âì
‚ 襣® । ªâ®à .
® ­ «®£¨ç­®¬ã ¯®¢®¤ã ‘. ƒ®ã«¤ ®â¬¥ç ¥â:
\Every language contains many words and expressions that are originally meaningful but have been used so often that the reader is
scarcely aware of their presence. If translated literally (and very often it is hard to translate them in any other way) they are already
overtranslated. A good example is the Russian phrase ª ª ¨§¢¥áâ­®, often translated `as is known' or (usually somewhat better) by
`as is well known'. But in many cases the author is referring to
a mathematical fact which is indeed suciently well known that to
call it so in English becomes absurd and we must use some phrase as
`of course' or `naturally' or `obviously' or some other `slight' English
word, or perhaps nothing at all."
à¨­æ¨¯ 㬮«ç ­¨ï ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ª® ¢á¥¬ àãá᪨¬ á«®¦-

34

ƒ«. 11. “¬®«ç ­¨¥ ª ª ¯à¨¥¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤

­®¯®¤ç¨­¥­­ë¬ (¨ á«®¦­®á®ç¨­¥­­ë¬) ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï¬ á ¬­®£®ç¨á«¥­­ë¬¨ ýçâ®þ ¨ ýª®â®àë©þ. ƒ®¢®àï ä®à¬ «ì­®, ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ¢¯®«­¥ ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ®¯ã饭 (= ¤®¯ã᪠¥â 㬮«ç ­¨¥) áâàãªâãà ¯®¤ç¨­¥­¨ï ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©. ‚ ¯®¤®¡­ëå á«ãç ïå ¨á室­®¥ á«®¦­®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¢à é ¥âáï ¢ ­¥áª®«ìª® ¯à®áâëå.
Œ­®£¨¥ 㬮«ç ­¨ï 㬥áâ­ë ¯à¨ § ¬¥­¥ àãááª¨å «¥ªá¨ç¥áª¨å
ª®­áâàãªæ¨©, ¨£à îé¨å ஫¨ à⨪«¥© ¨ ¨­ëå ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥© ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥. ‘ª ¦¥¬, ®¯¨á ­¨ï ¢ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ïå ⨯ ý㯮¬ï­ã⮥ ¢ëè¥ ãá«®¢¨¥þ, ý¢¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ­ ¬¨ ᮣ« 襭¨¥þ, ý­¥ª®â®à ï ¯à®¨§¢®«ì­ ï äã­ªæ¨ïþ ¨ â. ¯. ¨á祧 îâ ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥, ®áâ ¢«ïï ᢮¨¬¨
á«¥¤ ¬¨ ¯®¤å®¤ï騥 à⨪«¨.
‚ ᢮¥¬ ®¡é¥¬ §­ 祭¨¨ 㬮«ç ­¨¥ ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥â ªà ⪮áâì
¨§«®¦¥­¨ï. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ì­ë© á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª, âà ªâãî騩 ¢®¯à®áë ¯®¤®¡­®£® த , | ª­¨£ R. H. Fiske, Guide to Concise Writing.

à¨¬¥àë 㬮«ç ­¨ï:
about
according to
although

←−
←−
←−

anyhow
anyway
a short time
as usual
because ...

←−
←−
←−
←−
←−

before
by ...

←−
←−

by contrast
by induction on k

←−
←−

re
in accordance with
albeit
despite the fact that
at any rate
in any case
a short period of time
as is accepted
due to the fact that ...
because of the fact that ...
on account of the fact that ...
pre
by means of ...
via ...
by virtue of ...
per contra
by use of the method of the
mathematical induction with
respect to the parameter k

ƒ«. 11. “¬®«ç ­¨¥ ª ª ¯à¨¥¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤

35

in the same way
compare
consider
during
hence, thus,
henceforth,
therefore, wherefore,
whence, whereas
‘à ¢­¨:
¨¡®, ¤ ¡ë

←−
←−
←−
←−
←−

by the same token
cp., cf.
take into account
during the cause of
hence, herein, hereby, henceforth;
thus, therefore, therefor, thence,
thereat; whereas, whereby,
wherein, whence, wherefore

←−

if
in fact
instead of
it is necessary
it violates
for ...
, for example,
like
, namely,
often

←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−
←−

¨¡®, ¤ ¡ë, ¯®¥«¨ªã, ®âᥫì, ®âª®«ì,
¯®­¥¦¥, ¥¦¥«¨, ª ¡ë, ¯®á¥¬ã
in the event that
actually
in leiu of
it behooves
it reneges
for (the) sake of ...,
, e.g.,
as is the case with ...
, viz.,
in the majority of cases
in many cases
perchance
to eventuate
to recapitulate
to treat of
That is a blatant
contradiction.
the ball that has the intersection
of coordinates as its center
and whose radius is r

perhaps
to result
to summarize
to treat
That is
a contradiction.
the ball of radius r
centered at the origin

←−

36

ƒ«. 11. “¬®«ç ­¨¥ ª ª ¯à¨¥¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤
an index repeated
implies summation
most articles
the conjecture
fails
the set of
measure zero
The proof is complete.
with the
notation of (5.2)

←−

without loss of
generality

←−

←−
←−
←−
←−
←−

repeated suces
being summed
the majority of articles
the above-discussed conjecture has
been answered in the negative
the set that is of the
Lebesgue measure equaling zero
Q.E.D.; Quod erat demonstrandum.
where the nomenclature is
that introduced in the
section labeled with (5.2)
with the absolute exclusion
of any possibilities of
diminishing the scope of current
consideration

ˆá¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ ¯à¨­æ¨¯ 㬮«ç ­¨ï | ¢ ¦­ë© í«¥¬¥­â ã«ãç襭¨ï
áâ¨«ï ¯¥à¥¢®¤ .

ƒ« ¢ 12
ˆ§¡¥£ ©â¥ ।ª¨å á«®¢
¨ â®­ª¨å ª®­áâàãªæ¨©
‚ᥣ¤ ¥áâì ᮡ« §­ ¢áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ᢮© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ।ª®¥, ªà ᨢ®¥,
­¥¤ ¢­® 㧭 ­­®¥ ¨«¨ ¯®à §¨¢è¥¥ ‚ á á«®¢®.  ¯à¨¬¥à, bizarre, gment, smattering, egregious, maverick, credenda ¨ â. ¯. | § ¬¥ç ⥫ì­ë¥ â®ç­ë¥ á«®¢ . ᫨ ‚ë ¤®«£® ­¥ §­ «¨ §­ 祭¨ï ®¤­®£® ¨§
­¨å, â® ¢®§¬®¦­® ¢ â ª®¬ ¦¥ ¯®«®¦¥­¨¨ ¨ ç¨â â¥«ì ‚ 襣® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ . ¥ ᮧ¤ ¢ ©â¥ ¥¬ã âà㤭®á⥩. ᫨ ‚ë ­¥ á㬥«¨ 㤥ঠâìáï
¨«¨ á«®¢® ¤¥©á⢨⥫쭮 ­¥¨§¡¥¦­®, ¯à¨¬¥­ï©â¥ ¥£®, ᮡ«î¤ ï ¬¥àë
¯à¥¤®áâ®à®¦­®áâ¨. à¨¢¥¤¨â¥ ᨭ®­¨¬, ¯®ïá­¥­¨¥ ¨«¨ íª¢¨¢ «¥­â.
 ª®­¥æ, ¯à¨¬¨â¥ ¯à ¢¨«® ­¥ 㯮âॡ«ïâì ¡®«ìè¥ ¤¢ãå â ª¨å á«®¢
­ ᮫¨¤­ãî áâ âìî. ‚ ª­¨£¥ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«® ¬®¦­® ­¥ ᮡ«î¤ âì.
ˆ ª®­¥ç­®, ¤ ¦¥ ¥á«¨ ®à¨£¨­ « ¤ ¥â ‚ ¬ ¤«ï í⮣® ®á­®¢ ­¨¥,
­¥ ¯à¨¬¥­ï©â¥ á«¥­£, ¯®á«®¢¨æë ¨ ¯®£®¢®àª¨, ¦ ࣮­ ¨ ¢ã«ì£ ਧ¬ë (㯠ᨠ¡®£, à㣠⥫ìá⢠) ¢ ­ ãç­®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥. ‚ᥠíâ® ¯®ª ¢­¥
­ ãç­®£® «¥ªá¨ª®­ , ¨ ­¥ ‚ ¬ à áè¨àïâì ¥£® ¨¬¥î騥áï à ¬ª¨. ®«¥§­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®: á«®¢® ¨«¨ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨¥ ¢ á«®¢ à¥, ¯®¬¥ç¥­­ë¥ ª ª
informal, ¨«¨ archaic, ¨«¨ taboo, ‚ ¬ ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ­¥«ì§ï.
‘⮨â ãç¥áâì â ª¦¥ ¨ ¢ ¦­®¥ ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨¥, ª®â®à®¥ ᤥ« « S. Greenbaum:
\Aesthetic judgements also change. We no longer relish long and
involved periodic sentences with Latinate diction, and we are embarrassed by orid impassioned prose. Present-day language critics
prefer the direct style, which is closer to speech, for non ctional

38

ƒ«. 12. ¥¤ª¨¥ á«®¢ ¨ â®­ª¨¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨
writing. At its best it combines clarity and conciseness with elegance and vigour. At its dullest it is at least plain and clear."

‚ᥣ¤ à㪮¢®¤áâ¢ã©â¥áì ¦¥á⪨¬ ­¥¯à¨ï⨥¬ «î¡ëå á«®¦­ëå,
।ª¨å ¨ â®­ª¨å £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ª®­áâàãªæ¨©. ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ | ­¥
¬¥áâ® ¤«ï ã¯à ¦­¥­¨© ¯® \Future in the Past" ¨«¨ \Direct and Indirect Speech."
ˆ§¡¥£ ©â¥ ᮡ« §­ ­®¢®¬®¤­ëå ã¯à®é¥­¨©. Žá­®¢ ­¨ï àãá᪮©
⥮ਨ ý§ ¥æ þ ¨¬¥îâ ¬­®£® ­£«¨©áª¨å ᨬ¯ ⨧ ­â®¢. ‚®â 㬥áâ­ ï ¨ ­¥¤ «¥ª ï ®â ¤¥©á⢨⥫쭮á⨠¯ த¨ï:
`The European Commission have just announced an agreement whereby English will be the ocial language of the EU, rather than German, which was the other possibility. As part of the negotiations,
Her Majesty's government conceded that English spelling had some
room for improvement and has accepted a ve year phase in plan
that would be known as \EuroEnglish".
| In the rst year, \s" will replace the soft \c". Sertainly, this will
make the sivil servants jump for joy. The hard \c" will be dropped
in favour of the \k". This should klear up konfusion and keyboards
kan have 1 less letter.
| There will be growing publik enthusiasm in the sekond year, when
the troublesome \ph" will be replaced with the \f". This will make
words like \fotograf" 20% shorter.
| In the third year, publik akseptanse of the new spelling kan be
expekted to reach the stage where more komplikated changes are
possible. Governments will enkorage the removal of double letters,
which have always ben a deterent to akurate speling. Also, al wil
agre that the horible mes of the silent \e"s in the language is disgraseful, and they should go away.
| By the 4th year, peopl wil be reseptiv to steps such as replasing
\th" with \z" and \w" with \v".
| During ze fz year, ze unesesary \o" kan be dropd from vords
kontaining \ou" and similar changes vud of kors be aplid to ozer
kombinations of leters. After zis fz year, ve vil hav a realy sensibl
riten styl. Zer vil be no mor trubls or di kultis and evrivun vil
nd it ezi to understand each ozer ZE DREAM VIL FINALI KUM
TRU!'

ƒ«. 12. ¥¤ª¨¥ á«®¢ ¨ â®­ª¨¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨

39

¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¯à¨¬¥­ï©â¥ í¬ä â¨ç¥áªãî ¨­¢¥àá¨î ¨ ¯®¤®¡­ë¥ ¥©
á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯à¨¥¬ë.
Š ª®¥ ¡ë ®¡«¥£ç¥­¨¥, ᪠¦¥¬, ­¨ ¯à¨­¥á«® § ¢¥à襭¨¥ ¤®ª § ⥫ìá⢠¤«¨­­®© â¥®à¥¬ë ¥¥ ¢â®àã ( ‚ ¬ § ¢¥à襭¨¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤
¤®ª § ⥫ìá⢠), ­¥ ¯¨è¨â¥ \at last proven is the theorem." Ž£à ­¨ç¨¢ ©â¥áì ®¡ëç­ë¬ \The proof is complete."
Š â®­ª¨¬ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¬ ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï¬ ®â­®áïâ ®¯ã᪠­¨¥ (=
ellipsis) ç á⨠᫮¢, ª®â®àë¥ å®âï ¨ ¨§¬¥­ïîâ (¨«¨ ¤ ¦¥ ­ àãè îâ)
£à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áªãî áâàãªâãà㠯।«®¦¥­¨ï, ­® ¯®«­®áâìî á®åà ­ïîâ
¢ëà ¦¥­­ãî ¢ ­¥¬ § ª®­ç¥­­ãî ¬ëá«ì.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¬®¦­® ᪠§ âì
\We prefer Dutch cheese to Danish." ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï äà § \ We prefer
Banach spaces to Hilbert" ®ç¥¢¨¤­® ¡¥áá¬ëá«¥­­ . †¥á⪮¥ ¯à¥¤ã¡¥¦¤¥­¨¥ ª ellipsis ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¯®¬¥è ¥â ‚ ¬ ¢ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥.
‚ £«. 10 ¬ë ®¡á㤨«¨ á«®¦­®á⨠¢®á¯à¨ïâ¨ï ¡á®«îâ­ëå ª®­áâàãªæ¨©. Œ­®£¨¥ । ªâ®àë ®â­®áïâ ¨å ª à §àï¤ã â®­ª¨å.
\The art of art, the glory of expression, and the sunshine of the
light of letters, is simplicity."
(W. Whitman)

ƒ« ¢ 13
¥ ¨§®¡à¥â ©â¥ ª®««®ª 権
‚ àãá᪮¬ ¨ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª å ¥áâì ¯à¨¢ëç­ë¥ á«®¢®á®ç¥â ­¨ï
| ª®««®ª 樨.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¯®-àãá᪨ £®¢®àïâ: ý¢ëà §¨âì (¯à¨­¥áâ¨)
(£«ã¡®ª¨¥, ¨áªà¥­­¨¥, á¥à¤¥ç­ë¥) ᮡ®«¥§­®¢ ­¨ïþ. ®- ­£«¨©áª¨
| \to express (convey, o er) (sincere, heartfelt) condolences." ¥«ì§ï
᪠§ âì, ­¥ ¢ë§¢ ¢ ­¥¤®ã¬¥­¨ï, \ to bring profound condolences." ‚
á¢®î ®ç¥à¥¤ì, ¯®- ­£«¨©áª¨ ¡ë¢ ¥â \deep (profound, quiet) satisfaction." ®-àãá᪨ ýâ¨å®¥ 㤮¢«¥â¢®à¥­¨¥þ ¢ë§®¢¥â ãᬥèªã. ®«¥§­® ⢥म ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® á«®¦¨¢è¥¥áï ï§ëª®¢®¥ á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨¥ |
ã§ãá | í⮠ॠ«ì­®áâì, ® ª®â®à®© O. Jespersen ¯¨á « \that tyrannical,
capricious, utterly uncalculable thing, idiomatic usage." (‘à. ¯®£®¢®àª¨: \Tomorrow come never," \There is always a something.")
‚ ­ ãç­®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ¯®áâ®ï­­® ­ã¦­ë ¬­®£¨¥ ª®««®ª 樨.  ¯à¨¬¥à, \to arrive at (come to, draw, reach) a conclusion", \to satisfy
(ful ll, meet, maintain, obey, enjoy) conditions" ¨ â. ¯. ®¤®¡­ë¥ ª®««®ª 樨 ¬®¦­® ­ 室¨âì á ¯®¬®éìî ®¡à §æ ¨ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå á«®¢ ३. ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨, ®­¨ ¥áâì ¢ ­¥¤ ¢­® ¨§¤ ­­®¬ The BBI Combinatory
Dictionary of English.
Ž¡è¨à­ë© á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ë© á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª, ®â­®áï騩áï ª £« £®«ì­ë¬ ¨¤¨®¬ ¬, | íâ® The Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (àãá᪮¥ ¨§¤ ­¨¥ 1986 £.). ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ­¥ á⮨⠧ ¡ë¢ âì, çâ® ¨¤¨®¬ë ¢®®¡é¥ ¨ £« £®«ì­ë¥ ¢ ç áâ­®á⨠।ª¨ ¢ ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãà¥. (—¨â ⥫î, 㢨¤¥¢è¥¬ã ¯à®â¨¢®à¥ç¨¥ ¬¥¦¤ã ®à¨¥­â 樥© ­ idiomatic
usage ¨ 䨪á 樥© ।ª®á⨠¯®ï¢«¥­¨ï ¨¤¨®¬ ¢ ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãà¥, á«¥¤ã¥â ãïá­¨âì ᥡ¥ à §­¨æã ¬¥¦¤ã §­ 祭¨ï¬¨ á«®¢ \idiom",
¨á¯®«ì§ã¥¬®£® ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ uncountable noun ¨ countable noun.)

ƒ«. 13. Collocations

41

¥ª®â®àë¥ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ¤«ï ­ ãç­ëå ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢ ª®««®ª 樨 ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë ¢ Appendices 2 and 3.
‘®¢¥â ­¥ ¨§®¡à¥â âì ª®««®ª 権 ®â­®á¨âáï ¨ ª ¯à®á⥩訬 ¨§
­¨å, ýª®««®ª æ¨ï¬ ¨§ ®¤­®£® í«¥¬¥­â þ | á«®¢ ¬. ’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬,
‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¢®§¤¥à¦ âìáï ®â ¨§®¡à¥â¥­¨ï ­®¢ëå á«®¢ (¨ ¤ ¦¥ noncewords). Š ª ¨§¢¥áâ­®, \Nothing quite new is perfect." (Cicero)
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ ¡«¨§ª®¥ á«¥¤á⢨¥ ¨§ 㪠§ ­¨ï . • «¬®è \Use words correctly." ‚ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥, ¨§ ­¥£® ­¥¯®á।á⢥­­® ¢ë¢®¤¨âáï ¯à ¢¨«®: \Use words", ¨«¨, ¯® § ª®­ã ª®­âà ¯®§¨æ¨¨, \Don't
use nonwords!" ˆ­ ç¥ £®¢®àï, ¤ ¦¥ ¢ ᢮¥¬ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì á«®¢ , 㦥 ¨¬¥î騥áï ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬
ï§ëª¥. Š®­¥ç­®, ‚ á ¬®¦¥â ¢ë¢¥á⨠¨§ à ¢­®¢¥á¨ï ª ¦ãé ïáï ¡á®«îâ­® ¯ãá⮩ ¨ ­¥ã¬¥áâ­®© ­ §¨¤ ⥫쭮áâì ¯à¥¤ë¤ã饩 äà §ë.
Ž¤­ ª® ᮢᥬ ­¥ ¨áª«î祭¨¥ ¯®¤®¡­ ï ¦¥ ॠªæ¨ï ‚ 襣® ¡ã¤ã饣® ç¨â â¥«ï ­ ­£«¨©áª¨¥ nonwords ⨯ : annulator, symmetricity,
etc., ª®â®àë¥ ­¥ § ॣ¨áâà¨à®¢ ­ë á«®¢ àﬨ ¨, ­¥á¬®âàï ­ íâ®,
¯à¥¤¯à¨­¨¬ îâ (ª ᮦ «¥­¨î, ­¥ ¢á¥£¤ ¡¥§ãᯥè­ë¥) ¯®¯ë⪨ ¯à®­¨ª­ãâì ¢ ­ ãç­ë¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ë.
®¬­¨â¥: ‚ë | í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨©, ­¥ ®ªª §¨®­ «ì­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª.
‚ è ¤¥¢¨§: ã§ãá, ­¥ ª §ãá!
Usus versus casus!

ƒ« ¢ 14
¥ ¯ã⠩⥠`British English' ¨
\American English"
᫨ ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¯à¥¤­ §­ 祭 ¤«ï à á¯à®áâà ­¥­¨ï ¬¥à¨ª ­áª¨¬ ¨§¤ ⥫ìá⢮¬, ¨á¯®«ì§ã©â¥ ¢ ਠ­â \American English."
‚ ¢à®¯¥ ¯à¨¬¥­ïîâ `British English.' Žá®¡¥­­®á⨠¯à ¢®¯¨á ­¨ï
¨ á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨ï ®âà ¦¥­ë ¢ å®à®è¨å á«®¢ àïå. ’¨¯¨ç­ë¥ ¤«ï
­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãàë ®â«¨ç¨ï | íâ® ¢ ਠ⨢­®á⨠¯à ¢®¯¨á ­¨ï
¨ á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨ï ⨯ :
[BE]
analyse
artefact
(it) behoves
centre
equalled
ful l
have proved
in case 6= if
Maths
metre
up to the time
re exion

[AE]
analyze
artifact
(it) behooves
center
equaled
ful ll
have proven
in case = if
Math
meter
on time
re ection

[BE]
modelling
neighbourhood
pretence
programme
rigour
semi-norm
speciality
towards
yours sincerely
7/11/17
apart from
anticlockwise

[AE]
modeling
neighborhood
pretense
program
rigor
seminorm
specialty
toward
sincerely yours
11/7/17
aside from
counterclockwise

®«¥§­® ã¡¥¤¨âìáï ¢ ¤®¯ãá⨬®á⨠¨«¨ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®á⨠⮣® ¨«¨ ¨­®£® ¬¥à¨ª ­¨§¬ ¨«¨ ¡à¨â¨æ¨§¬ ¯® ®¡à §æã. ‘ª ¦¥¬, ¯¨á âì \thru"
‚ ¬ ¯à¥¦¤¥¢à¥¬¥­­®. ã ¯à¨è¥¤è¥¥ ¨§ €¬¥à¨ª¨ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥

ƒ«. 14. `British English' vs. \American English"

43

through ¢ á¬ëá«¥ \up to and including" | íâ® ¢¯®«­¥ ¤®¯ãá⨬ë©
¢ ¢à®¯¥ ¯à¨¥¬. ˆ¬¥îâáï ­¥¡®«ì訥 ®â«¨ç¨ï ¨ ¢ ¯ã­ªâã 樨:
[BE] The saying goes: `The exceptions \prove" the rule.'
[AE] The saying goes: \The exceptions `prove' the rule."
(ˆ­â¥à¥á­® ®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® ¨ ¢ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥ ¥áâì ¯®¤®¡­ë¥ ¯à®¡«¥¬ë.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ýŽç¥¢¨¤­®.þ ¨«¨ ýŽç¥¢¨¤­®þ.?)
[AE] ¨¬¥¥â â ª¦¥ ⥭¤¥­æ¨î ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¬¥­ìè¥ ¤¥ä¨á®¢ (hyphens), 祬 ¯à¨­ïâ® ¢ [BE]. “§ãá 䨪á¨àã¥â ¨ ­¥ª®â®àë¥ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ®â«¨ç¨ï. ’ ª, ¢ [BE] ­ «¨ç¨¥ just ®¡ëç­® âॡã¥â the Present
Perfect. ‚ [AE] ¢ í⮩ á¨âã 樨 ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ the Simple Past. €­ «®£¨ç­®, [AE] ¯à¥¤¯®ç¨â ¥â ¯à®á⮥ ¯à®è¥¤è¥¥ ¢à¥¬ï ¯à¨ ¨§«®¦¥­¨¨
­®¢®á⥩ (¢ [BE] ¯à¨­ïâ® ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ¯¥à䥪â­ãî ä®à¬ã). ‚ 楫®¬
¦¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ãç¨âë¢ âì á㦤¥­¨¥ .  âਤ¦ :
\In writing, there is an American Literary Standard, which so closely resembles English Literary Standard as to establish no basic, no
important di erence."

ƒ« ¢ 15
‘«¥¤¨â¥ § ª« áá¨ä¨ª 樥©
áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå
‚ë §­ ¥â¥, çâ® ¤«ï £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ­ã¦¤ ¨¬¥îâ §­ 祭¨¥ à §«¨ç¨ï ¢ ⨯ å áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå.  ¯à¨¬¥à, proper nouns (= ¨¬¥­
ᮡá⢥­­ë¥ | Banach, Leibniz, etc.), ª ª ¨ ¬¥á⮨¬¥­¨ï, ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠îâ ¯¥à¥¤ ᮡ®© à⨪«¥© a/an ¨«¨ the. ‘।¨ ¯à®ç¨å áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå | \common nouns" | ¢ë¤¥«ïîâ â¥, ã ª®â®àëå ­¥â ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®£® ç¨á« | uncountable (ᨬ¢®«¨ç¥áª¨ [U]), ¨ â¥, ã ª®â®àëå
¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«® ¥áâì (ᨬ¢®«¨ç¥áª¨ [C]). ®«¥§­® ®á®§­ âì ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨¥, ª®â®à®¥ ¢ë᪠§ « M. Swan:
\Strictly speaking, we should talk about countable and uncountable
uses of nouns, not about countable and uncountable nouns."
‚ ®¤­¨å §­ 祭¨ïå ®¤­® ¨ â® ¦¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì [U],
¢ ¤à㣨å [C].  ¯à¨¬¥à, motion, interest, integration, equation.
‚ ¯®«­ëå á«®¢ àïå ­¥ 㪠§ë¢ îâ [C], ¥á«¨ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ â ª®¢® ¢® ¢á¥å ᢮¨å §­ 祭¨ïå. ¥à¥á¥ç¥­¨¥ ª« áᮢ [C] ¨ [U] ­¥ ¯ãáâ®.
 ¯à¨¬¥à, recurrence [C,U] ¨ depth (as distance) [C,U]. ”®à¬ «ì­® £®¢®àï, ®¡ê¥¤¨­¥­¨¥ ª« áᮢ [C] ¨ [U] ­¥ ᮤ¥à¦¨â ¢á¥å ­®à¬ «ì­ëå
áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå (­ ¯à¨¬¥à, a think). ®¤®¡­ë¥ á«ãç ¨ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­®
㪠§ ­ë. ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­¨ï ® ⮬, ã ª ª¨å áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå
¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«®, ã ª ª¨å ­¥â, ã àãááª¨å «î¤¥©
®â­î¤ì ­¥ â ª¨¥, ª ª ã ­£«¨ç ­.
‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ¯à ¢®¯¨á ­¨¥ áãé¥á⢥­­® § ¢¨á¨â ®â 㯮¬ï­ã⮣® ¤¥«¥­¨ï. ’ ª, ‚ë ¯®¬­¨â¥, çâ® áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥ ¡ë¢ îâ singular

ƒ«. 15. Š« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå

45

| [S] ¨«¨ plural | [P] ¨ âॡãîâ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饩 [S] ¨«¨ [P] ä®à¬ë
£« £®« . Ÿá­®, çâ® [U] | íâ®, ᪮॥ ¢á¥£®, [S]. ¥á«®¦­® ¤®£ ¤ âìáï,
çâ® [P]+[C] (¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«® ¯¥à¥ç¨á«¨¬®£® áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®)
âॡã¥â []-ä®à¬ë £« £®« . ®: Billiards is a game for two. ˆ«¨ ¥é¥:
The United States is a state. ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ® ¯®¤®¡­ëå (¤®¢®«ì­® ।ª¨å) ¨áª«î祭¨ïå | ¢¥¤ì ª ­¨¬ ®â­®áïâáï ­ §¢ ­¨ï ¬­®£¨å ­ ãª:
mathematics, physics, cybernetics, etc.
‚ ¦­ ï ®á®¡¥­­®áâì ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï á«®¢ ­ -ics (¨, ¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, asymptotics and dynamics), å à ªâ¥à­ëå ¤«ï ­ ãç­®© ¯¥à¨®¤¨ª¨, á®á⮨⠢ á«¥¤ãî饬. ᫨ à¥çì ¨¤¥â ® ­ ãç­®© ¤¨á樯«¨­¥,
¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï ä®à¬ë £« £®« , ®â¢¥ç î騥 [S], ¢ ¨­ëå á«ãç ïå |
[P].  ¯à¨¬¥à,
Magnetohydrodynamics is a branch of dynamics.
Dynamics of multiphase systems in particular include heat and mass
transfer.
‚ á¢ï§¨ á ®â¬¥ç¥­­®© ®á®¡¥­­®áâìî ã§ãá ¢ ᮢ६¥­­®© ­ ãç­®©
«¨â¥à âãॠç é¥ ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ®¡®à®âë ⨯ the asymptotic/dynamic
behaviour of the system in question.
‘ãé¥áâ¢ãîâ ¨ ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¤à㣨¥ â®­ª®á⨠¢ 㯮âॡ«¥­¨¨ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå. ’ ª, ¯à®å®¦¨© | a passer-by; ¯à®å®¦¨¥ | passers-by.
€­ «®£¨ç­ ï á奬 ¯à¨¬¥­ï¥âáï ª á®áâ ¢­ë¬ â¥à¬¨­ ¬, ᪠¦¥¬,
a group of nilpotency class 2 | groups of nilpotency class 2;
a side of length unity | sides of length unity.
‚ ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ­¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ãâ®ç­¨âì ᯮᮡ 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï ¨­â¥à¥áãî饣® ‚ á áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£® á ¯®¬®éìî á«®¢ àï!

ƒ« ¢ 16
Un-, In- ¨«¨ Non-?
Žà¨¥­â¨à®¢, ¯®¬®£ îé¨å ᤥ« âì ª®à४â­ë© ¢ë¡®à ¡¥§ ¯®¬®é¨ á«®¢ àï, ­¥¬­®£®. ‘ç¨â ¥âáï, çâ® ¯à¥ä¨ªá in- (¨ ¥£® ¢ ਠ­âë
il-, ir-, im-, ã¯à ¢«ï¥¬ë¥ ­ ç «ì­®© ¡ãª¢®© ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à㥬®£® á«®¢ )
á¢ï§ ­ á ª®à­¥¬ ᪮॥ « ⨭᪮£® ¯à®¨á宦¤¥­¨ï (⥬ á ¬ë¬ in¯à¥¤¯®ç¨â ¥â -ible, ­¥ -able).
à¨áâ ¢ª un- ®¡á«ã¦¨¢ ¥â த­ë¥ ª®à­¨ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª ,
â ª¦¥ ®â£« £®«ì­ë¥ ä®à¬ë, ®ª ­ç¨¢ î騥áï ­ -ing ¨ -ed. ( ¤¨­á⢥­­®¥ ¨áª«î祭¨¥ á।¨ ¯®á«¥¤­¨å | inexperienced.)
®¬¨¬® í⮣®, non- ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ ¥âáï ª ª ¤®áâ â®ç­® ­¥©âà «ì­®¥
®âà¨æ ­¨¥. ’ ª, á«®¢® \nonscienti c" ¡«¨§ª® ¯® á¬ëá«ã ª àãá᪮¬ã
ý¢­¥­ ãç­ë©þ (â. ¥. ¢­¥ ¯à¥¤¥«®¢ ­ 㪨), \unscienti c" ª®à५¨àã¥â á â¥à¬¨­®¬ ý ­â¨­ ãç­ë©þ. €­ «®£¨ç­®, \nonlogical axioms" íâ®
­¥ â® ¦¥ á ¬®¥, çâ® \illogical axioms."
„«ï 㤮¡á⢠¯à¨¢¥¤¥¬ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ¯¥à¥¢®¤ å á«®¢ ,
¯à ¢®¯¨á ­¨¥ ª®â®àëå ¢ë§ë¢ ¥â § âà㤭¥­¨¥.

¨è¨â¥ in-, im-, etc.:
inaccurate
inapplicable
incomplete
inconceivable
incongruent
inconsistent
inconstructible
inconvenient
incorrect

indeterminate
indirect
indisputable
indistinct
indistinguishable
ine ective
inecacy
inequality
inessential

inexpressible
inoperable
inseparable
insoluble
insucient
insupportible
invalid
invariable
immovable

improper
illegal
illegitimate
illicit
illimited
illiterate
illogical
irrefutable
irregular

ƒ«. 16. Un-, In-, and Nonindecomposable
inde nite

¨è¨â¥ un-:

inevitable
inexact

unambiguous
unbound
uncomplimentary
unconventional
undecidable
uneconomical
unexceptional
unexcusable

47
impracticable
improbable
unfeasible
unimportant
unintelligible
unnecessary
unobservant
unocial
unorthodox
unostentatious

irreparable
irresistable

unrestrictive
unsafe
unsolvable
unstable
unsuppresible
unsusceptible
untolerable
untractable

¨è¨â¥ non-:
nonactive
nonfunctional
nonresidual
nonadditive
nonidentical
nonsensitive
nonassignable
nonincreasing
nonstructural
nonautonomous
nonindependent
nonresistant
nonbasic
nonintegrable
nonrigid
nonbreakable
nonindustrial
nonsensible
nonbuoyant
noninterchangeable
nonsensical
noncollectable
nonisolated
nonsuccessive
noncompetitive
nonmember
nonsupporting
nonconstructive
nonobjective
nonsustaining
noncontroversial
nonobservant
nontechnical
nonconventional
nonoccurence
nontemporal
nonconvertible
nonoperative
nonthinking
noncooperative
nonorientable
nontransferable
nondeformed
nonphysical
nontrivial
nondi erentiable
nonprincipled
nontubular
nonessential
nonproductive
nonuniform
nonempty
nonprovable
nonvariable
nonexistent
nonrandom
nonvoid
nonfactual
nonrecurring
nonworking
non nite
nonregular
nonyielding
ˆ­®£¤ ¢®§­¨ª ¥â ᮡ« §­ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¢ ¯®¤®¡­ëå á«®¢ å hyphen
(¤¥ä¨á) ¨ ¯¨á âì, ᪠¦¥¬, non-standard. ‚ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ (®á®¡¥­­® ¤«ï
[BE]) â ª®© ¢ ਠ­â ¢®§¬®¦¥­.

48

ƒ«. 16. Un-, In-, and Non-

„«ï ­ ¤¥¦­®á⨠¯à¨¤¥à¦¨¢ ©â¥áì á«¥¤ãî饣® ¯à ¢¨« : áâ ¢ì⥠¤¥ä¨á ¯®á«¥ non- ⮫쪮 ¯¥à¥¤ ¡®«ì让 ¡ãª¢®© (­ ¯à¨¬¥à, nonEnglish, non-Jacobian) ¨«¨ ¥á«¨ ®âà¨æ ¥¬®¥ á«®¢® 㦥 ¨¬¥¥â ¤¥ä¨á
(­ ¯à¨¬¥à, non-simply-connected, non-ex-president).
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ â ª¦¥, çâ® ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ë© á¬ëá« ¯à¨¤ ¥âáï ¨ ¬­®£¨¬¨ ¨­ë¬¨ á।á⢠¬¨ (áà ¢­¨â¥ discontinuity, aperiodicity, abnormality, disconnectedness, asymmetry, o -diagonal, misconception, malfunction, etc.). ˆ ­ ª®­¥æ, ¯®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ®ª®­ç ⥫쭮¥ à¥è¥­¨¥ ¯à®¡«¥¬ë un-, in- ¨«¨ non- ¢ ª®­ªà¥â­®¬ á«ãç ¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨­¨¬ âì ¯®á«¥ ª®­áã«ìâ 樨 á® á«®¢ ६.

ƒ« ¢ 17
¥à¥¤ ‚ ¬¨ «ìâ¥à­ ⨢ :
Lemmas ¨«¨ Lemmata
‚ë¡®à ­¥ ¯à®áâ, ¨ ¢ ­£«®ï§ëç­®© ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãॠ‚ë ¢áâà¥â¨â¥ ®¡ ¢ ਠ­â .
‚ á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª å ¨ á«®¢ àïå ¨¬¥îâáï ®¡é¨¥ ¯à ¢¨« ®¡à §®¢ ­¨ï ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®£® ç¨á« ¤«ï § ¨¬á⢮¢ ­­ëå áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå.
‘।¨ ¯®á«¥¤­¨å ¢áâà¥ç îâáï ¬­®£¨¥ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ¨ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ë¥ ¤«ï
‚ è¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢ á«®¢ . ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨:
analysis
apex
basis
calculus
criterion
curriculum
eidos
focus
formula
genus
hypostasis
hypothesis
index
matrix
opus
phenomenon
radius

analyses
apices
bases
calculi
criteria
curricula
eide
foci
formulae
genera
hypostases
hypotheses
indices
matrices
opera
phenomena
radii

(apexes)
(calculuses)
(criterions)
(curriculums)
(focuses)
(formulas)

(indexes)
(matrixes)
(phenomenons)

50

ƒ«. 17. Œ­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«®

schema
schemata
spectrum
spectra
(spectrums)
tableau
tableaux
thesis
theses
vortex
vortices
(vortexes)
à¨­ïâ® áç¨â âì, çâ® ¢ ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãà¥, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ¯à¥¤¯®çâ¨â¥«ì­¥¥ á«®¢® ¨§ á।­¥© ª®«®­ª¨. (•®âï ¡ë¢ îâ ¨ ¤à㣨¥
­î ­áë. ‘ª ¦¥¬, ý¨áç¨á«¥­¨ïþ | íâ® \calculuses", \calculi" |
íâ® ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ­¥¯à¨ïâ­ë¥ ª ¬¥èª¨.) ‘â६«¥­¨¥ ª ¥¤¨­®®¡à §¨î
¨ ¯®á«¥¤®¢ ⥫쭮á⨠¢ à¥è¥­¨ïå ¢¥áì¬ ¯®å¢ «ì­®. ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ¢ ਠ­â | formulae ¨ lemmas | ⨯¨ç­ë© í«¥¬¥­â ­ë­¥è­¨å
¯ã¡«¨ª 権.
‚ë¡®à § ‚ ¬¨!

ƒ« ¢ 18
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ à⨪«¨ ¨
¤à㣨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¨
‚ë §­ ¥â¥ ®¡ à⨪«ïå a/an ¨ the, ®âáãâáâ¢ãîé¨å ¢ àãá᪮¬
ï§ëª¥. ¥à¢ë© ¯à¨­ïâ® ¯à®¨§¢®¤¨âì ®â one, ¢â®à®© | ®â that.
“¤®¡­® áç¨â âì, çâ® ¨¬¥¥âáï ¯ãá⮩ à⨪«ì (= the zero article ¨«¨
∅ article), ª®â®àë© ¯®áâ®ï­­® ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥âáï ¢ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥.
‚ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ¯ãá⮩ à⨪«ì, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«® (á à¥¤ç ©è¨¬¨ ¨áª«î祭¨ï¬¨), ­¥ ¬®¦¥â áâ®ïâì ¯¥à¥¤ ¯¥à¥ç¨á«¨¬ë¬ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬ ¢ ¥¤¨­á⢥­­®¬ ç¨á«¥ (¤«ï [S]-ä®à¬ë áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£® ⨯ [C]).
’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬, äà § \Circle Is Squared" ¬®¦¥â ¯®ï¢¨âìáï à §¢¥ «¨èì ¢ £ §¥â­®¬ § £®«®¢ª¥. à¨¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«® ­¥ ®§­ ç ¥â,
çâ® ¢ í⮬ á«ãç ¥ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬® ¯®áâ ¢¨âì a/an ¨«¨ the. €­£«¨©áª ï
£à ¬¬ ⨪ âॡã¥â ­ «¨ç¨ï ª ª®£®-«¨¡® ­¥¯ãá⮣® ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ï
(= determiner, ­¥ ¯ãâ âì á ¨§¢¥áâ­ë¬ ¢á¥¬ ¨§ ¬ ⥬ ⨪¨ determinant).
‚ áâàãªâãà­®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¥ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª ª ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ï¬
®â­®áïâ:

articles
possessives
demonstratives
distributives
relatives
inde nites

a/an, the, ∅
my, his, her, its, our, your, their;
Banach's, Newton's, etc.
this, that, these, those
each, every, either, neither, another, other
what(ever), which(ever), whose
any, some, no

52

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

quanti ers

all, both, half, (a) little, (a) few, less, least,
a lot of..., enough, much, many, more, most, several
emphasizers
such, suchlike
ordinals
rst, second,...
cardinals
zero, one, two, three,...
à¨¢¥¤¥¬ â ¡«¨æã á®ç¥â ¥¬®á⨠¤«ï 㪠§ ­­ëå ª« áᮢ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥©:
[C]

[U]

[S] [P]
a/an
the

+
+

∅

each, every, either, neither, another,
+
(exactly, just) one
many, (a) few, several, a number of...
much, (a) little, less, least, a (good) deal of...
more, most, a lot of..., plenty of..., enough
what(ever), which(ever), whose, no, such,
+
some, any, other

+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +

Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® any ¨ some ¯¥à¥¤ [C]+[S] ª¢ «¨ä¨æ¨àãîâ (¨ ¯à®¨§­®áïâ) ª ª stressed. ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, ç⮠㤠७¨ï ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬
ï§ëª¥ ¬®£ãâ ­¥á⨠á¬ëá«®¢ãî ­ £à㧪ã.
ˆ­®£¤ cardinals ¨ ordinals ®â­®áïâ ª postdeterminers, ¨¬¥ï ¢ ¢¨¤ã, çâ® ®­¨ á«¥¤ãîâ § ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥¬. €­ «®£¨ç­® ¢ë¤¥«ïîâ ¨ predeterminers, â. ¥. á«®¢ , ®¡ëç­® ¯à¥¤¢ àïî騥 ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ì:

predeterminers such, suchlike, what, quite, all, both,...,
once, double,...; 1/3, 5/6,... (fractions)
postdeterminers rst, second, superlatives, cardinals, ordinals

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

53

Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, ordinals should precede cardinals when in use together.
ˆ¬¥îâáï ¨ á«®¢ á ¯®£à ­¨ç­ë¬ áâ âãᮬ, ¢à®¤¥ next, last, certain, same. ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ­¥ ­ ¤® § ¡ë¢ âì, ç⮠ᯨ᮪ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥© ­¥ ¯®¤«¥¦¨â à áè¨à¥­¨î ¯® ‚ 襬㠯ந§¢®«ã ¨«¨ £¨¯®â¥§¥.
 ¯à¨¬¥à, á«®¢® \somewhat" ¨ ¢®¢á¥ ­ à¥ç¨¥. ¥ª®â®àë¥ ¨§ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥© ¨£à îâ ¨ ஫¨. ’ ª, other ¬®¦¥â á«ã¦¨âì ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬
¨ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬. ¥ª®â®àë¥ ¢â®àë ®â­®áïâ ª ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ï¬ ¨
á®áâ ¢­ë¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ⨯ the other, the very, etc. Œë ¢®§¤¥à¦¨¢ ¥¬áï ®­ í⮩ ¯à ªâ¨ª¨.
Žâ¬¥â¨¬ §¤¥áì ¦¥ ¯®«¥§­ãî â ¡«¨æã ýáâ㯥­¥© à®áâ ª®«¨ç¥á⢠þ:
[C]
all/every
most
many/far more
many (more)
a lot of ...
some
several
quite a few
a few
few
no

[U]
all
most
much more
much (more)
a lot of ...
some
quite a little
a little
little
no

Grades of quantity.

®«¥§­ ï ¤¥â «ì | ¢ ®¡ë¤¥­­®¬ ã§ãᥠmuch ª ª determiner (¨«¨
ª ª pronoun) ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥âáï ¢ negative sentences, ¢ ¯®«®¦¨â¥«ì­ëå
«ãçè¥ ã¯®âॡ«ïâì a lot of..., a good deal of..., etc. ®«®¦¨â¥«ì­ë¥
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, ®¤­ ª® ¦¥, ¯à¨­¨¬ îâ so much, too much, as much.
‘«¥¤ã¥â ¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, çâ® ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ¯¥à¥¢®¤ å ­ §¢ ­­®¥ ®£à ­¨ç¥­¨¥ ­ much (¨ many) ­¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â. Káâ ⨠᪠§ âì, ¢ ä®à¬ «ì­®¬
⥪á⥠¯à¨­ïâ® ¨§¡¥£ âì ª¢ ­â®à®¢ a lot of..., a good deal of... ¨ ¨¬
¯®¤®¡­ëå.

54

ƒ«. 18. Determiners
‚®â ¥é¥ தá⢥­­ ï á¥à¨ï ¯à ¢¨«:
so/as/too/how + adjective +a/an + noun
such a/an + adjective + noun
quite/rather + a/an + adjective + noun
rather + a/an/the + noun
a quite/rather + adjective + noun

à¨ í⮬ ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯¨á âì such a/an + adjective + noun, ª®£¤ ‚ë ­ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥ ¨¬¥¥â¥ ¢ ¢¨¤ã so + adjective + a/an + noun.
‡ ¬¥âì⥠⠪¦¥, çâ® such a/an + noun ¯à¥¤¯®« £ ¥â gradeability.
Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, ¯® ¬­¥­¨î .  âਤ¦ \quite does not | in
good English | means `rather'; its two standard senses being (i) `completely, wholly, entirely, to the fullest extent'... (ii) `actually, truly, positively'...."
ˆ§ á«¥¤ãî饩 â ¡«¨æë ¢¨¤­®, ª ª 㯮âॡ«ïâì predeterminer
⨯ all, both, half:
[C]

half −→

an, the, my,
this, that

[U]

angle
half −→

[S]
all −→

the, my
research
this, that

the, my,
side
this, that

half −→

the, my,
angles
these, those
all −→

[P]

the, my,
progress
∅, this, that

the, my,
all
−→
sides
∅, these, those
both

Žâ¬¥âì⥠¤«ï ᥡï â ª¦¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ⨯ all of us, each of
them, one of you, etc. ‚ á®ç¥â ­¨ïå ¯®¤®¡­®£® த á áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬¨ ®¡ï§ ⥫¥­ ­¥¯ãá⮩ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ì: some of the integrals, any

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

55

of Banach's theorems, most of the diculties, etc. Žâáãâá⢨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ï, ¢®®¡é¥ £®¢®àï, ã­¨ç⮦ ¥â of. é¥ ¤¥â «ì | ¯®¬­¨â¥
¢ ਠ­âë \all the space" ¨ \the whole space."
®«ì§ã©â¥áì â ¡«¨çª®©:
one some any
each many most
none all several
the rst
the last
all but one
the rest
the majority

+ of + the ...

Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® a/an ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥âáï ¯¥à¥¤ one ⮫쪮 ¥á«¨ ¯¥à¥¤ ¯®á«¥¤­¨¬ á«®¢®¬ ¯à¨áãâáâ¢ã¥â ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮¥ (â. ¥. an interesting/good one | íâ® ¢¥à­®, ­® a one appeared above | ᮫¥æ¨§¬).
® á宦¨¬ ¯à¨ç¨­ ¬ ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï the one of ... â ª¦¥ ­¥¢®§¬®¦­ .
¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ªã ­ ãç­ëå ⥪á⮢, ¨ ®á®¡¥­­® ¬ ⥬ ⨪ã, ¯à¨ à ááâ ­®¢ª¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥©, ¨ ¯à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£® à⨪«¥©, ¯®«¥§­® à㪮¢®¤á⢮¢ âìáï ¨å ¡ãª¢ «ì­ë¬ á¬ëá«®¬. ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨, \ /an" á⮨â à áᬠâਢ âì ª ª ý­¥ª®â®àë©þ, \the" | ª ª ý¢¯®«­¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë©
(íâ®â)þ. ‚ë ¯®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì í⨬®«®£¨ á¢ï§ë¢ îâ á ­£«®-á ªá®­áª¨¬ an | c one.)
’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬,
\Given a vector space X and a subspace X0 of X, arrange the factor
space X/X0 ."
Žâ¬¥â¨¬ §¤¥áì ¦¥, çâ® ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ a substitute word
\One can only replace a countable noun." (M. Swan, Practical
English Usage)
¨ª®£¤ ­¥ áâ ¢ì⥠a/an ¨«¨ the ¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨ own. ‘«®¢® own ç áâ®

56

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

®â­®áïâ ª postdeterminers. ¥à¥¤ ­¨¬ ¢á¥£¤ ¤®«¦¥­ ¡ëâì ®¤¨­ ¨§
possessives.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ® ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®¬ ¡« £®§¢ã稨 (euphony) ¯à¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ ¬¥¦¤ã a ¨ an ¢ á«ãç ¥ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå â¥à¬¨­®¢. ’ ª, ‚ ¬ ­ã¦­®
¯¨á âì an f -algebra, a U -boat, an R-linear map, an ANR-space, etc.
Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ã ᮪à 饭¨© ¢á¥£¤ ¤®«¦¥­ ¡ëâì ­¥¯ãá⮩ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ì, § ¨áª«î祭¨¥¬ ªà®­¨¬®¢ (⨯ UNESCO, NATO).
‘«¥¤ã¥â §­ âì ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®¥ ¨ ¢ ¦­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®, á¢ï§ ­­®¥ á ª¢ ­â®à®¬ áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨ï.
Š¢ ­â®à (∃x)ϕ(x) ¯®¤à®¡­® ç¨â ¥âáï there exists an element x
such that ϕ(x) holds.
”®à¬ã« (∃x)(∃y)ϕ(x, y) ¯®«­®áâìî ç¨â ¥âáï â ª: there exist elements x and y such that ϕ(x, y) holds. Š®­¥ç­®, ¢ ®¡ëç­®¬ ⥪áâ¥
(¨ à¥ç¨) ¬­®£®¥ §¤¥áì ®¯ã᪠¥âáï.
Ž¤­ ª® ­¥ á⮨⠧ ¡ë¢ âì, çâ® ¢ íª§¨áâ¥­æ¨ «ì­ëå ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå § ®¡®à®â®¬ (there is ..., there appear ..., etc.) ¯® ­®à¬¥ ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥âáï ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­®¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥. €à⨪«ì the §¤¥áì § ¯à¥é¥­!
à ¢¨«® ¢¥áì¬ áâண®¥. ’ ª, (∃!x)ϕ(x) ¢ëà ¦ îâ á«®¢ ¬¨ there
exists a unique x such that ϕ(x). ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ᥪà¥âë ®¡®à®â®¢ there
is/there are á⮫ì áãé¥á⢥­­ë, çâ® ¨¬ ¡ã¤¥â ®â¢¥¤¥­ á ¬®áâ®ïâ¥«ì­ ï £« ¢ . Žâ¬¥âì⥠§¤¥áì ¦¥, çâ® such ¢®®¡é¥ ­¥ ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ, ¥á«¨
ã áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£® ¯®áâ ¢«¥­ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì ¨«¨ ®¤¨­ ¨§
demonstratives ¨«¨ possessives.
‚ ¦­ë© ¢®¯à®á | ¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥© ¯à¨ áá뫪 å ­
­ã¬¥à®¢ ­­ë¥ ¨«¨ ¨¬¥­®¢ ­­ë¥ «¥¬¬ë, ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¨ â. ¯.
‚¥à­ãî áâà ⥣¨î «¥£ª® ¯®­ïâì ­ á«¥¤ãî饬 ¯à¨¬¥à¥. ᫨
‚ë áä®à¬ã«¨à®¢ «¨ ⥮६ã 3.5 ¨, ­ ª®­¥æ, ¯®á«¥ ¯à¥¤¢ à¨â¥«ì­ëå
à áá㦤¥­¨© ¯¥à¥å®¤¨â¥ ª ¥¥ ¤®ª § ⥫ìáâ¢ã, â® ¯¥à¥¤ ‚ ¬¨ ®âªàë¢ îâáï ¤¢¥ ¢®§¬®¦­®áâ¨. ‚ë (á ¨§¢¥áâ­®© ¨, ¢ ®¡é¥¬, ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®©
¨£à¨¢®áâìî) ¬®¦¥â¥ ᪠§ âì:
\The time has come to prove the theorem."
ˆ«¨ ¦¥ ¡®«¥¥ ª ¤¥¬¨ç­®:
\We now prove Theorem 3.5."
Ž¡¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨ ª®à४â­ë. ‚ ¯¥à¢®¬ á«ãç ¥ 㪠§ ­¨¥ ­ à áᬠâਢ ¥¬ãî ⥮६㠤 ¥â ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì the.

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

57

‚® ¢â®à®¬ ¢ ਠ­â¥ Theorem 3.5 ï¥âáï ¨¬¥­¥¬ ᮡá⢥­­ë¬ (proper noun), ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ î騬 ®¤­®§­ ç­ãî ®âá뫪㠪 ⥮६¥ 3.5.
à¨ í⮬ à⨪«ì ­¥ã¬¥á⥭.
é¥ ®¤­ ¯®«¥§­ ï â®­ª®áâì ¢ 㯮âॡ«¥­¨¨ à⨪«ï. à ¢¨«ì­® ¯¨á âì: \the Sobolev Embedding Theorem" ¨«¨ ¦¥ \Sobolev's
Embedding Theorem." Ž¡ê¥¤¨­¥­¨¥ íâ¨å ¤¢ãå ª®­áâàãªæ¨© ã§ãᮬ
(¨ «¨­£¢¨áâ ¬¨) ­¥ ®¤®¡àï¥âáï. ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ¢ ਠ­â the famous Sobolev's Theorem ¢¯®«­¥ ­®à¬ «¥­. Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® âॡãîâ
®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ï ¢ ਠ­âë á ¯à¨âï¦ â¥«ì­ë¬ ¯ ¤¥¦®¬, ­¥ á¢ï§ ­­ë¥
á ᮡá⢥­­ë¬¨ ¨¬¥­ ¬¨ ⨯ \the author's theorem."
Žâ¬¥âì⥠⠪¦¥, çâ® ¥áâì ¢ªãá®¢ë¥ (¨«¨ ª®à¯®à ⨢­ë¥) ¤¥â «¨: ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢ â¥å­¨ç¥áª®© «¨â¥à âãॠ¯à¨­ïâ® ¯¨á âì Eq. (5) ¨«¨
Equation (5) (á ¡®«ì让 ¡ãª¢ë), ¢ ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®© ¯¥à¨®¤¨ª¥ íâ®
ᮣ« 襭¨¥ ­¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â: ¢ ­¥© ¯¨èãâ « ¯¨¤ à­® | (5).
‚®®¡é¥ £®¢®àï, ¥áâì ¯à ¢¨«® \normally one determiner is enough
for a noun phrase." ‘ª ¦¥¬, ¢ ¢®¯à®á¨â¥«ì­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå ⨯
I wonder what function acts here, áâ ¢¨âì à⨪«ì ¬¥¦¤ã what ¨ function § ¯à¥é¥­® (determiner 㦥 ¥áâì). â® ­¥ ®â¬¥â ¥â ¢®§¬®¦­®áâ¨
\what Green's function...."
é¥ ®¤­® ¨áª«î祭¨¥ | ¯¥à¥¤ every (¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ï)
¬®¦¥â áâ®ïâì possessive. „«ï each ¢®§¬®¦¥­ «¨èì ¢ ਠ­â each of
my books ... (à¨ í⮬ my every book = each of my books. Šà®¬¥
⮣®, ¢ ਠ­â á every of ... | í⮠᮫¥æ¨§¬.)
‚ á¢ï§¨ á ⥪ã騬 ®¡á㦤¥­¨¥¬ Genitive Case (¯à¨âï¦ â¥«ì­®£® ¯ ¤¥¦ ) ®â¬¥âì⥠¯®«¥§­ë¥ ¤¥â «¨: Hahn{Banach's Theorem |
íâ® ­¥¢®§¬®¦­®¥ ®¡à §®¢ ­¨¥ (祫®¢¥ª á ä ¬¨«¨¥© • ­{ ­ å ­¥
¡ë«®). ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï the Kren Brothers' Theorem | ª®à४â­ë©
¢ ਠ­â. Ž¡®à®âë ⨯ Biot and Savart's law ¨ Hahn and Banach's
Theorem áâ®«ì ¦¥ ã§ã «ì­ë.
“ï᭨⥠⠪¦¥, çâ® å®âï ¢®§¬®¦­ë ®¡ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï the Minkowski inequality ¨ the Minkowski functional, ¤®¯ãá⨬ «¨èì ¢ ਠ­â:
Minkowski's inequality (¯¨á âì Minkowski's functional ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â |
ª «¨¡à®¢®ç­ ï äã­ªæ¨ï ­®á¨â ¨¬ï Œ¨­ª®¢áª®£®, ­¥ ¯à¨­ ¤«¥¦¨â
Œ¨­ª®¢áª®¬ã, ¨ íâ®â ®â⥭®ª áãé¥á⢥­).
à¨¬¥­¥­¨¥ à⨪«¥© ¨¬¥¥â ¡®«ì讥 ª®«¨ç¥á⢮ ¤¥â «¥© ¨ â®­ª®á⥩. „«ï ‚ 襣® ᢥ¤¥­¨ï áä®à¬ã«¨à㥬 ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¨§ ­¨å, ®á®¡¥­­® ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ‚ ¬ ¤«ï í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢.
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ⥪áâ å ¯®á«¥ £« £®«®¢ ý­ -

58

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

ãç­®£®þ àï¤ (undergo, involve, maintain, present, e ect, etc.) áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥ ý­ ãç­®£®þ àï¤ (parametrization, dimension, conclusion,
stability, etc.) ç á⮠㯮âॡ«ïîâ á zero article. ’ ª¦¥ ­¥ áâ ¢ïâ
­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì ¯¥à¥¤ ý®â£« £®«ì­ë¬¨þ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬¨, ®§­ ç î騬¨ ¤¥©á⢨ï: process, advice, guidance, progress, research, information, resistance, activity, permission, admission, work,
concern, value, etc. „¥â «¨ ã§ãá ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ᢥàïâì á ®¡à §æ®¬.
€à⨪«¨ ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥ç¨á«¥­¨¨ ®¡ëç­® ­¥ ¯®¢â®àïîâ: à⨪«ì (ç é¥ the) ¯¥à¥¤ ª ¦¤ë¬ á«®¢®¬ ᯨ᪠ᮧ¤ ¥â ï¢­ë© í¬ä â¨ç¥áª¨©
®â⥭®ª.
Žá®¡¥­­®áâì the ¢ ⮬, çâ® ¥£® ¯®áâ ­®¢ª ¯¥à¥¤ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬ ¯à¥¢à é ¥â ¯®á«¥¤­¥¥ ¢ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥, â. ¥. the ᯮᮡ¥­ ª
த®®¡à §®¢ ­¨î. (à ¢¤ , ¢®§­¨ª î饥 áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ ­¥¯®«­®æ¥­­® | ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠¥â Genitive Case, ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®£® ç¨á« , ᪫®­ï¥âáï ª ª they ¨ â. ¯.)
 ¤¥¦­®¥ ®áâ®à®¦­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«® á®á⮨⠢ ⮬, çâ®¡ë ¯¥à¥¤ same,
¯¥à¥¤ ®à¤¨­ « ¬¨ ¨ ¯¥à¥¤ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬¨ ¢ ¯à¥¢®á室­®© á⥯¥­¨
¢á¥£¤ áâ ¢¨âì ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì. â® ‚ ¬ ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¯®¢à¥¤¨â.
‡ ¯à¥â¨â¥«ì­ë¥ § ª®­ë, à §ã¬¥¥âáï, ­ã¦­® §­ âì £®à §¤® ⢥থ, 祬 ýà §à¥è¨â¥«ì­ë¥þ | ¨áª«î祭¨ï. ¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ª ¦¤ë© à § ᢮¨ ⥮à¥â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯à ¢ ­¥ áâ®«ì ¯à¥¤®á㤨⥫쭮, ª ª
¤¥©á⢮¢ âì ¢®¯à¥ª¨ § ¯à¥â ¬. Œ¥¦¤ã ⥬ ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª, ª ª
¨ «î¡®¥ ॠ«ì­®¥ á।á⢮ ®¡é¥­¨ï, ®âªàë¢ ¥â è¨à®ç ©è¨¥ ¯à®áâ®àë ¤«ï ᢮¡®¤­®£® á ¬®¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï. ‚®â ¤¢ ®â­®áïé¨åáï ª í⮬ã
㪠§ ­¨ï ¨§ £à ¬¬ ⨪¨ R. Quirk et al.:
\Virtually all non-count nouns can be treated as count nouns when
used in classi catory senses."
\Count nouns can be used as non-count in a generic sense."
(„¥ä¨á ¢ á«®¢¥ non-count ¢ë¤ ¥â ¢ . Š¢¥àª¥ ­£«¨ç ­¨­ .)
 §¢ ­­ë¥ ¢®§¬®¦­®á⨠ç áâ® ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï. ’ ª, ¯®á«¥¤­¨©
¯à¨¥¬ ⨯¨ç¥­ ¯à¨ ¯®áâ஥­¨¨ ¯®­ï⨩: the temperature of base of
rod; the area of cross section; a eld of characteristic zero; an operator
of nite rank, etc.
‚®®¡é¥ ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ § 䨪á¨à®¢ ­ ⥭¤¥­æ¨ï ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥ (®¡ëç­® ⨯ [U]) ¢ âਡã⨢­ëå ¨ ­ à¥ç­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦­ëå ®¡®à®â å (in attributive and adverbial prepositional

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

59

phrases) ¡¥§ à⨪«ï. à¨ í⮬ â ª ï ⥭¤¥­æ¨ï á⮫ì á¨«ì­ , çâ®
à⨪«ì ç áâ® ­¥ áâ ¢ïâ ¤ ¦¥ ¯¥à¥¤ [C]-nouns, ®áãé¥á⢫ïî騬¨ â¥
¦¥ ä㭪樨 (­ ¯à¨¬¥à, a question of principle, a statement of fact,
the de nition of powerset, without apparent reason, in suitable fashion,
with e ort, by induction, in di erential form). ‚ íâ® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï á⮨â
¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, çâ® ¨ ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­®£® à⨪«ï ¢ ¯®¤®¡­ëå
á«ãç ïå ¯à¨ [C]-noun ï¥âáï ¡¥áᯮ୮© ­®à¬®© ¢ ¯®¤ ¢«ïî饬
¡®«ì設á⢥ á«ãç ¥¢.
‚ í⮩ á¢ï§¨ ®â¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥¬ë¥ ¢ ᮢ६¥­­ëå ­£«¨©áª¨å ­ ãç­ëå ⥪áâ å ®¡®§­ 祭¨ï ¨¬¥îâ ᪫®­­®áâì ¢ëáâ㯠âì
¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ᮡá⢥­­ëå ¨¬¥­.
€ªªãà â­ ï áâà ⥣¨ï á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨ï ¯à¥¤¯®« £ ¥â, çâ® £¤¥â® ¢­ ç «¥ ‚ë ­ ¯¨á «¨ \Let us consider a triangle ABC " (¨¬¥¥âáï
¢ ¢¨¤ã a triangle, say, ABC ) ¨«¨ \Denote this n×n-matrix by B " ¨ â. ¯.
®á«¥ í⮣® ®¡ëç­® ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï \the area of ABC ", \the
norm of B ", etc.
ˆ¬¥­­® â ª®© ¤¥¬®ªà â¨ç¥áª¨©, « ¯¨¤ à­ë© áâ¨«ì ¯à¨­¨¬ ¥â
¡®«ì設á⢮ å®à®è¨å ¢â®à®¢ | ®­¨ ᪫®­­ë ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¨¬¥­
(á ¯ãáâë¬ à⨪«¥¬). â®¬ã ®¡à §æ㠂 ¬, ¯® à §¬ëè«¥­¨î, 楫¥á®®¡à §­® ¯®á«¥¤®¢ âì.
®«­®âë à ¤¨ ®¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® äà §ë ¢à®¤¥ \the f ; a B
and an F ; for all x's", ¨áª«îç î騥 ¢§£«ï¤ ­ ®¡®§­ 祭¨ï ª ª ­
¨¬¥­ , â ª¦¥ ¢¥áì¬ ¨ ¢¥áì¬ ­¥à¥¤ª¨. ‚ ਠ­âë \the function B ,
a matrix A, for all values of x" ¥áâ¥á⢥­­¥¥ ¨, ¢® ¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥, ¢¯®«­¥
ª®à४â­ë. ‚®§¬®¦­®, ¨å ‚ë ¨ ¯à¥¤¯®çâ¥â¥ ¤«ï ᥡï.
‡¤¥áì ¦¥ ¯®«¥§­® ¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, çâ® ¯à¨ «î¡®© «¨­¨¨ ¯®¢¥¤¥­¨ï
‚ ¬ ¤®«¦­® ®¡¥á¯¥ç¨¢ âì à §ã¬­ãî á¡ « ­á¨à®¢ ­­®áâì ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­¨©. ‚®â ®¡à §ç¨ª¨:
A function f satisfying (3.2) is called a test function.
The operator T↓ of Lemma 1 is the descent of T .
ã¦­® §­ âì, çâ® ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì ¯à¥¤è¥áâ¢ã¥â [C]noun, ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­­®¬ã á ¯®¬®éìî of-äà §ë, «¨èì ¢ ⮬ á«ãç ¥,
¥á«¨ íâ® ¬®¤¨ä¨ª æ¨ï ®¯¨á â¥«ì­ ï (descriptive). ˆ­ ç¥ £®¢®àï, ¢ ofäà §¥ à¥çì ¨¤¥â ® ª ç¥á⢥, ª®«¨ç¥á⢥ ¨«¨ ¨§¬¥à¥­¨ïå, á®áâ ¢¥, ¬ â¥à¨ «¥, ᮤ¥à¦ ­¨¨, ¢®§à áâ¥, à §¬¥à¥ ¨«¨ áà ¢­¥­¨¨. ‚ ®áâ «ì­ëå

60

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

á«ãç ïå of-äà §ë ïîâáï ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ î騬¨ ¨ âॡãîâ à⨪«ï
the ¯¥à¥¤ ¨á室­ë¬ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬.
®«¥§­® ®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥ á ¬¨ ¯® ᥡ¥
®£à ­¨ç¨¢ îâ noun, ¯®â®¬ã ¢â®¬ â¨ç¥áª¨ âॡãîâ the.  ¯à¨¬¥à, right, wrong, very, only, main, principal, central, same, following,
present, former, latter, proper, opposite, so-called, usual, upper, lower
¨ ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¤à㣨¥. — áâ® â ªãî äã­ªæ¨î ­¥á¥â superlative, ¯à¥¢®á室­ ï á⥯¥­ì ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮£®.
Šáâ ⨠᪠§ âì, ¯®á«¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®, ª®â®à®¥ ¯à¥¤¢ ७® superlative, of áâ ¢¨âì ­¥«ì§ï: ã§ãá íâ® § ¯à¥é ¥â. ‘«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨¬¥­¨âì
in, among ¨«¨ ¨­®¥ ¢ í⮬ த¥.
Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, ¯®á«¥ of, à ¢­® ª ª ¨ ¢ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠å, ¢ë¤¥«ï¥¬ëå ¯à¥¤«®£ ¬¨, ¯¥à¥¤ [U]-noun ç áâ® ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ¯ãá⮩ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ì. ’ ª ¦¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ á adjective +[U], ¥á«¨ âਡã⨢­®¥
¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮¥ ­¥ ¢ëà ¦ ¥â ª®­ªà¥â­®£® ᯥªâ ¯à¥¤¬¥â , ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥â á⥯¥­ì (great, perfect, sucient, huge, immense, in nite, major,
etc.) ¨«¨ ®â­®á¨âáï ª ¢à¥¬¥­¨ (modern, ancient, eternal, contemporary, nal, etc.), ­ 樮­ «ì­®áâ¨, ¬¥áâ­®á⨠¨ â. ¯.
„«ï § ªà¥¯«¥­¨ï ‚ è¨å ­ ¢ëª®¢ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥¬ ¤¢ ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ¨««îáâà ⨢­ëå ýá㯥ନ­¨ªãàá þ à ááâ ­®¢ª¨ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥©. ¥à¢ë© ®âà ¦ ¥â ⥮à¥â¨ç¥áªãî ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ¯®áâ஥­¨ï £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨ ¢¥à­®£® ⥪áâ , ¨á¯®«ì§ãî饣® ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥© ¤«ï
áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå ⮫쪮 à⨪«¨.

SUPERMINICOURSE I
For Friends of Articles
Employ only unmodi ed common nouns.
Always use one (and only one) of the articles: a, the, ∅.
Never leave a singular countable noun with the ∅ article.
Never put \the" before plural or countable nouns in writing
about generalities.
There are no other rules.

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

61

‚®§¬®¦¥­ ¨ ¢ ਠ­â, ¯à¨ ª®â®à®¬ à⨪«¥© ­¥â ¢®¢á¥.

SUPERMINICOURSE II
For Enemies of Articles
Employ only common nouns.
Never use any of the articles: a, the, ∅.
Never leave a noun phrase without a unique determiner.
Your determiners are possessives and demonstratives.
There are no other rules.

à¥¤®áâ¥à¥¦¥­¨¥: ‚ë¡à ¢ ®¤¨­ ¨§ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­­ëå (¨§ á®®¡à ¦¥­¨© ¡¥§®¯ á­®á⨠| ¯®- ­£«¨©áª¨) á㯥ନ­¨ªãàᮢ ¢ ª ç¥á⢥
¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª®£® à㪮¢®¤á⢠(çâ® ¢®§¬®¦­® ⮫쪮 ¢ ¯ பᨧ¬¥ «¥­¨), ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ ©â¥ ‚ è¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ë ¨áª«îç¨â¥«ì­® ⥧¨á ¬¨ ᮡá⢥­­ëå ¤®ª« ¤®¢ ­ ­¥¯à¥á⨦­ëå ª®­ä¥à¥­æ¨ïå.
®«¥¥ £«ã¡®ª¨© ­ «¨§ ®á®¡¥­­®á⥩ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï à⨪«¥©
á¢ï§ ­ á ¢ëïá­¥­¨¥¬ ¨å ä㭪権. ¥ ¢¤ ¢ ïáì ¢® ¢á¥ ¤¥â «¨, ®â¬¥â¨¬, çâ®, ­ 室ïáì à冷¬ á áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬ ⨯ [C] + [S], ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì ¨á¯®«­ï¥â nominating function, ¯à¨ à ᯮ«®¦¥­¨¨ ¯¥à¥¤ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬ à §àï¤ á [U] | aspective function.
Ž¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì ®¡« ¤ ¥â ¨­¤¨¢¨¤ã «¨§¨àãî饩, ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ î饩 ¨ ®¡®¡é î饩 (individualizing, restrictive and generic) äã­ªæ¨ï¬¨. The zero article ¨¬¥¥â ⮫쪮 nominating function.
®«¥§­® ®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® ¢ ­¥ª®â®àëå á«ãç ïå [U]-noun ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮 ¯®ï¢«ï¥âáï á ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë¬ à⨪«¥¬. ’ ª ¡ë¢ ¥â ¢ á«ãç ïå,
ª®£¤ [U]-noun ¯à¥¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­® (â. ¥. ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­® ¯®áâ ¢«¥­­ë¬¨ ¯¥à¥¤ ­¨¬ á«®¢ ¬¨) certain ¨«¨ particular ¨«¨ ª®£¤ íâ®
áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ ®¡ëç­® ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦­ëå ®¡®à®â å (â®ç­¥¥, in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases) ¯®á⬮¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­® ¯à¨¤ â®ç­ë¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥¬ (á ¯®¬®éìî ¯®á«¥¤ãî饩 § ¯¨á¨ clause).
ˆ¬¥îâáï ¨ ¤à㣨¥ ¤¥â «¨ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï à⨪«¥©, ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë¥
âà ¤¨æ¨ï¬¨ ã§ãá .
‚®®¡é¥ £®¢®àï, ¯®á⬮¤¨ä¨ª æ¨ï á¢ï§ ­ á ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥¬ the
¯¥à¥¤ [C]-noun (¢ ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮¬ ¯®à浪¥) ¨ á ¯®áâ ­®¢ª®© a/an ¤«ï

62

ƒ«. 18. Determiners

[U]-noun (ª ª £®¢®à¨âáï, if any). Ž¡ëç­ë¥ ¢ ਠ­âë: the operators
de ned by (5.2); according to a knowledge that stems from the earlier
considerations. Žç¥­ì âॡ®¢ â¥«ì­ ¯®á⬮¤¨ä¨ª æ¨ï á of-äà §®©,
ª®â®à ï ç é¥ ¢á¥£® ¢«¥ç¥â the. Žâ¬¥â¨¬ §¤¥áì ¦¥, çâ® ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨
a kind/sort/type of operator ¨ kinds/types/sorts of operators âॡãîâ
∅ article (¯®á«¥ of).
®¤¢®¤ï ¨â®£, ¬®¦­® ¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, çâ® ¤«ï ¯®¤ ¢«ïî饣® ¡®«ì設á⢠¯®âॡ­®á⥩ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ á।­¥© âà㤭®áâ¨
‚ ¬ å¢ â¨â á«¥¤ãîé¨å ã¯à®é¥­­ëå ¯à ¢¨«.

The Great Dozen of Determiner Commandments
(¬¨­¨ªãàá ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥©)
Ž¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¨ ¤«ï áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå.
Š ¦¤®¬ã áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¬ã ®â¤¥«ì­ë© ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«ì.
ˆ§ ¤¢ãå ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¥© ®¤¨­ | ¯ãá⮩ à⨪«ì.
Ž¡®§­ 祭¨ï ¬®£ãâ á«ã¦¨âì ¨¬¥­ ¬¨.
ˆ¬¥­ (á â¨âã« ¬¨ ¨ ¡¥§) âॡãîâ ∅ ᯥ।¨.
ˆ¬¥­ ¤¥¬®ªà â¨ç­ë, â¨âã«ë | àå ¨ç­ë.
®áâ ¢¨¢ of ¨«¨ that ᧠¤¨, ¯®¤ã¬ ©â¥ ® the ᯥ।¨.
‚ᥣ¤ ¯¨è¨â¥ the same ..., the least ..., the rst ..., etc.
∅ + [C] + [S] | íâ® —!
’¥áâë ¤«ï ∅ :

«î¡¨â ∀;
¡áâà ªâ­®¥ ¯ãáâ®;
¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â, ¢¢®¤¨â [U]/[C] + [P].

’¥áâë ¤«ï a/an:

«î¡¨â (¨ «î¡¨¬) ∃;
any, arbitrary, certain;
¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â, ¢¢®¤¨â [C] + [S].

«î¡¨â ∃! (¡¥§ ¢§ ¨¬­®áâ¨);
same, xed, speci c;
㪠§ë¢ ¥â, ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ ¥â.
„àã£¨å ¯à ¢¨« ­¥â.

’¥áâë ¤«ï the:

‡ ãç¨â¥ íâ®â ¬¨­¨ªãàá!

ƒ« ¢ 19
‘§ ¤¨ ¨«¨ ᯥ।¨?
‘ à ááâ ­®¢ª®© à⨪«¥© á¢ï§ ­ ¯à®¡«¥¬ à ᯮ«®¦¥­¨ï á«®¢,
á«ã¦ é¨å ¤«ï ¨§¬¥­¥­¨ï á¬ëá« áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®.  §¬¥é¥­¨¥
¯¥à¥¤ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬, ª ª 㦥 ®â¬¥ç «®áì, ­ §ë¢ îâ premodi cation, ¯®á«¥ | postmodi cation. Žáãé¥á⢨âì ¯à ¢¨«ì­ë© ¢ë¡®à ­¥
¯à®áâ®, å®âï ¢ ¡®«ì設á⢥ á«ãç ¥¢ ¯®¬®£ îâ ¯à®áâë¥ ¬­¥¬®­¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯à ¢¨« :

the

temporary
speci c

postmodi cation

habitual
permanent

premodi cation

a

‚®â ¯à¨¬¥àë, ¤¥¬®­áâà¨àãî騥 ᪠§ ­­®¥ ¤«ï ¯à®áâëå ý®â¤¥«ì­® ¢§ïâëåþ ing-participles ¨ ed-participles:
Integration is an operator acting between function spaces.
The theorem discussed implies several corollaries.
A repeated integral equals the corresponding multiple integral.
€­ «®£¨ç­ë¥ ¯à ¢¨« ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ ¨ ¤«ï ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå ­ -ible,
-able. Šáâ ⨠᪠§ âì, å®âï ¢ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ ­ -ible ª®­ç ¥âáï ¬¥­ì襥
ª®«¨ç¥á⢮ ­£«¨©áª¨å á«®¢, 祬 ­ -able (â. ª. -ible | ý¬¥àâ¢ë©þ
ä䨪á), ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ⥪áâ å (¨ ¢ ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤ å ¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨) -ible | ¡®«¥¥ ⨯¨ç­®¥ ®ª®­ç ­¨¥. Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, á«®¢
­ -ible ®¡ëç­® ¤«ï ®âà¨æ ­¨ï ¯à¨­¨¬ îâ il-, im-, ir- ¨ â. ¯.). ‚®â
¯®«¥§­ë© ᯨ᮪ ⨯¨ç­ëå ­ã¦­ëå ‚ ¬ á«®¢, ¢ ª®â®àë¥ ¬®£ã⠯பà áâìáï ®è¨¡ª¨:

64

ƒ«. 19. Premodi cation and Postmodi cation

accessible
divisible
indelible
releasible
adducible
eligible
intelligible
reproducible
admissible
expansible
legible
resistible
avertible
expressible
negligible
responsible
compatible
extensible
ostensible
reversible
comprehensible
feasible
perceptible
sensible
credible
exible
plausible
susceptible
deducible
forcible
possible
tangible
defensible
inaccessible
reducible
visible
‡ ©¬¥¬áï ⥯¥àì ¯à®¡«¥¬®© ýᯥ।¨ ¨«¨ ᧠¤¨þ ¡®«¥¥ ®¡áâ®ï⥫쭮.
‚ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥, ¢ à ¡®ç¥¬ á®áâ®ï­¨¨ | ¢ ¯à ¢¨«ì­® ¯®áâ஥­­®¬
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ | áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ 䨣ãà¨àã¥â ª ª the head of a noun
phrase, â. ¥. ¢®§­¨ª ¥â ¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á® á奬 ¬¨:

noun phrase := premodi cation + head + postmodi cation
premodi cation := determiner + adjectives + (adjectivized) participles + nouns + adjectives
postmodi cation := prepositional phrases + clauses.
‘â ¢ï á«®¢® ¢ premodi cation, ‚ë ¯® ¯®­ïâ¨î ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥â¥ ¥£® âਡã⨢­® (¯® ®â­®è¥­¨î ª head). ®í⮬㠤«ï ‚ á áãé¥á⢥­­ ¯®¬¥âª attributive, ª®â®à®© ¢ å®à®è¨å á«®¢ àïå á­ ¡¦¥­ë ­¥ª®â®àë¥
á«®¢ . “ª § ­¨¥ predicative ¨áª«îç ¥â ­¥¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­®¥ (ý¢­¥£« £®«ì­®¥þ) 㯮âॡ«¥­¨¥ ª¢ «¨ä¨æ¨à㥬®£® á«®¢ ¨ ¢ ç áâ­®á⨠¥£®
¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ¢ premodi cation. ’ ª, ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥ utter, mere, shear
¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ⮫쪮 âਡã⨢­®, á«®¢ awake, sick | ⮫쪮 ¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­®, «¨èì ¢ ¯®á⬮¤¨ä¨ª 樨 ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï manque ¨ galore.
à¨¡«¨§¨â¥«ì­® £®¢®àï, predicative adjectives, ­ ¯®¬¨­ ï £« £®«ë ¨ ­ à¥ç¨ï, 䨪á¨àãîâ á®áâ®ï­¨ï áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£® (¢®§¬®¦­®,
¢à¥¬¥­­ë¥); attributive adjectives å à ªâ¥à¨§ãîâ ᪮॥ ¥£® ®â¤¥«ì­ë¥ ®¡ëç­® ­¥ ¨áª«îç¨â¥«ì­ë¥ ¯à¨§­ ª¨. ¥ª®¬¥­¤ 樨 á«®¢ àï ®¡
âਡã⨢­®¬ ¨ ¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­®¬ á«®¢®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨¨ ¯à¨­¨¬ ©â¥ ª ª
®¡ï§ ⥫쭮¥ âॡ®¢ ­¨¥.
‘â®ï騥 ¯®á«¥ head of the noun phrase á«®¢ , ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ïî騥
ing-participles ¨«¨ ed-participles ¨ ¤ ¦¥ adjectives, ¯® ®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã, ¬®¦­® à áᬠâਢ âì ª ª ¢ë஦¤¥­­ë¥ á«ãç ¨ clauses, ­ 室ï騥áï ¢ premodi cation | ª ª ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥.  §ã¬¥¥âáï, ãç áâ¢ãî騥 ¢ á奬 å ¤«ï noun phrases í«¥¬¥­âë (ªà®¬¥, ¯®­ïâ­®, head)

ƒ«. 19. Premodi cation and Postmodi cation

65

¬®£ãâ ¡ëâì ¯ãáâ묨.
Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ¯®á«¥ ⮣®, ª ª ‚ë ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ «¨ ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­®¥
áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ head ¨ ¯®á⬮¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ «¨ ¥£® ¯à¨
í⮬ ing-participle clause, ‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥ áà §ã ¦¥ ¯à¥¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ âì
¨á室­®¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饩 ing-ä®à¬®©, ¯®áâ ¢¨¢ ¢
­ã¦­®¬ ¬¥á⥠®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢¯®«­¥ ª®à४⥭
á«¥¤ãî騩 ¢ ਠ­â:
There is a unique operator T solving the equation under study. The
solving operator T is linear.
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® ¢ á«ãç ¥ ed-participles, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, à¥çì
¤®«¦­ ¨¤â¨ ® ¯ áᨢ­ëå (¡ëâì ¬®¦¥â, ᮪à 饭­ëå) ä®à¬ å, ᪠¦¥¬: the results obtained, the theorem stated, etc. ‚ á«ãç ïå ªâ¨¢­®£® § «®£ (Active Voice) á«¥¤ã¥â ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¯à¨¤ â®ç­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, all identities which resulted from the above argument; the matrix that transformed the previous basis, etc. Ž¡ëç­®
â ª¨¥ ä®à¬ë ¯à¨¥¬«¥¬ë, ¥á«¨ £« £®« ­¥¯¥à¥å®¤­ë© (intransitive) ¨,
§­ ç¨â, ¢ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ ­¥ ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¢ Passive Voice.
®«¥§­® §¤¥áì ¦¥ ®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥ (¨ adjectivized
ed-participles), ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠îâ ¬®¤¨ä¨ª 樨 á ¯®¬®éìî
by, å à ªâ¥à­®© ¤«ï ¯ áᨢ . ( ¯à¨¬¥à, äà § \We are tired by
him" | ᮫¥æ¨§¬.)
‘⮨⠨¬¥âì ¢ ¢¨¤ã, çâ® ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬ à §à¥è¥­® 䨣ãà¨à®¢ âì ¢ ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­­®© ­ à¥ç¨¥¬ ä®à¬¥, ª ª ¢ á«ãç ¥ a weakly
sequentially compact set. ᫨ ed-participles ãç áâ¢ãîâ ¢ premodi cation, â® â ª¦¥ ¤®¯ã᪠îâáï ¨§¬¥­¥­¨ï ­ à¥ç¨ï¬¨ (¨å ¤ ¦¥ ¬®¦­®
áç¨â âì ¯à®¯ã᪮¬ ed-participle ­ ¬¥áâ® ¯¥à¥¤ noun): well-de ned,
vaguely-separated, etc. ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ¯®áâ ¢¨âì hyphen (¤¥ä¨á) |
¢ í⮬ á«ãç ¥ ®­ ®¡ï§ ⥫¥­ (®¡êïá­¥­¨¥ ¯à®áâ® | ‚ è¥ participle
ä®à¬ «ì­® áâ «® ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬). ‡¤¥áì ®âà ¦ ¥âáï ®¡é¥¥ ¯à ¢¨«®: hyphenated compounds (á®áâ ¢­ë¥ á«®¢ , ¯®«ã祭­ë¥ à ááâ ­®¢ª®© ¤¥ä¨á®¢) ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ⮫쪮 ¢ premodi cation.
‚ ¦­® § ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮£® ¢¬¥á⥠á adjective complement (⨯ some nite in a neighborhood of the origin
cover) | ¡á®«îâ­® § ¯à¥é¥­® ¤«ï premodi cation. ‚ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥ â ª¨¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ § ª®­­ë ¨ è¨à®ª® à á¯à®áâà ­¥­ë, ¢ â® ¢à¥¬ï
ª ª ¢ ­£«¨©áª®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â ¦¥á⪮¥ ¯à ¢¨«®: \An adjectival phrase with complement cannot be preposed." ˆ£­®à¨à®¢ ­¨¥

66

ƒ«. 19. Premodi cation and Postmodi cation

­ §¢ ­­®© ®á®¡¥­­®á⨠| ¨áâ®ç­¨ª £àã¡¥©è¨å ®è¨¡®ª. ®¬­¨â¥ ®¡
í⮬!
‘ãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥, ãç áâ¢ãî騥 ¢ premodi cation, â ª¦¥ ¯® ®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï ¢ ç¨á⮬ ¢¨¤¥ | ¡¥§ ᮡá⢥­­ëå ¬®¤¨ä¨ª 権. (Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, íâ® ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥â, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ¥¤¨­á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«® áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®, ¨£à î饣® ஫ì adjective. ‘ª ¦¥¬, 䨫ìâà 墮á⮢ ¡ã¤¥â a tail lter, ­¥ ýäà ç­ë© 䨫ìâàþ |
a tails lter. “§ãá, ®¤­ ª®, ­¥ ¨áª«îç ¥â ¢ëà ¦¥­¨© ⨯ systems
theory, ª®â®àë¥ ­ã¦­® à áᬠâਢ âì ª ª set phrases.)
‘«¥¤ã¥â ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® ­¥®¡¤ã¬ ­­®¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå ¢ ஫¨ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå (¨«¨, ª ª ¯à¨­ïâ® ¢ ­£«¨©áª®©
£à ¬¬ ⨪¥, noun adjectives) ¯à¨¢®¤¨â ª the \noun adjective mania",
ç á⮠䨪á¨à㥬®© á।¨ ®è¨¡®ª í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¢.
‘ãé¥á⢥­­®, çâ® âਡã⨢­®¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£® ¯® ®¡é¥© ­®à¬¥ ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥â ᥬ ­â¨ç¥áªãî ᫨⭮áâì ¢®§­¨ª î饩 äà §ë (the limit cases, a neighborhood lter, an operator algebra, etc.). ’®ç­¥¥ £®¢®àï, ¯à¨ ¯®á⬮¤¨ä¨ª 樨 á ¯®¬®éìî of ¨¤¥¨,
§ ª«î祭­ë¥ ¢ à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®¬ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¬ ¨ âਡãâ¥, ®áâ îâáï à §¤¥«¥­­ë¬¨, ¢ â® ¢à¥¬ï ª ª ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï noun as an adjective
®áãé¥á⢫ï¥â ª®¬¡¨­¨à®¢ ­¨¥ ¨¤¥©. à¨ í⮬ ç áâ® ¯à¨áãâáâ¢ã¥â ®â⥭®ª ¯®¤ç¨­¥­­®á⨠âਡãâ £®«®¢­®¬ã á«®¢ã (the cases have
limits, a lter consists of neighborhoods, an algebra contains operators,
etc.).
‚ëà ¦¥­¨ï, ¨á¯®«ì§ãî騥 's genitive, ®¡ëç­® á¢ï§ ­ë á ®¤ã襢«¥­­ë¬ ¯¥à¢ë¬ í«¥¬¥­â®¬ (ª ª, ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢ the author's approach).
à¨ í⮬ ¯®¤®¡­ë¥ áâàãªâãàë ®§­ ç îâ, çâ® head á«ã¦¨â ®¡ê¥ªâ®¬
¤¥©áâ¢¨ï ¯à¥¤è¥áâ¢ãî饣® á«®¢ (the author takes this approach).
€­ «®£¨ç­ ï á¢ï§ì ¢ á«ãç ¥ ­¥®¤ã襢«¥­­ëå ®¡ê¥ªâ®¢ âॡã¥â ofgenitive. ’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬, á«¥¤ã¥â ¯¨á âì the conformality of a mapping, the claim of the lemma ¨ ®â¢®¤¨âì ¢ ਠ­âë the mapping conformality, the lemma's claim, etc. (áà. ¯á¥¢¤®àãá᪨¥ ¢ëথ­¨ï ýä㭪樭 ª®­ä®à¬­®áâìþ, ý«¥¬¬¨­ ä®à¬ã«¨à®¢ª þ).
¨ª®£¤ ­¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® \premodi cation confers relative permanence.... A notable constraint against making postmodifying phrases
into premodifying nouns is the relative impermanence of the modi cation
in question." (R. Quirk et al.)
‚ ¬ â ª¦¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ¨¬¥âì ¢ ¢¨¤ã ᯥæ¨ä¨ªã ¢®á¯à¨ïâ¨ï á«®¦­®© äà §ë ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥. à®¨««îáâà¨à㥬 ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî-

ƒ«. 19. Premodi cation and Postmodi cation

67

騩 ¯à¨­æ¨¯ ⨯¨ç­ë¬ ¯à¨¬¥à®¬. ’¥à¬¨­
a closable unbounded linear operator
¯®­¨¬ ¥âáï ¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á® á奬®©
an operator → a linear operator → an unbounded linear operator
→ a closable unbounded linear operator.
®¤®¡­ë© ¯à¨¥¬ ®âà ¦¥­ ¢ ¯à®¤ã¬ ­­®© ­ ãç­®© ­®¬¥­ª« âãà¥:
¡®«ì訬 ç¨á«®¬ á«®¢ ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥âáï ¬¥­ì訩 ª« áá ®¡ê¥ªâ®¢.
à¨ ¯®áâ஥­¨¨ á«®¦­ëå noun phrases á⮨⠨¬¥âì ¢ ¢¨¤ã ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ¨å à §àë¢ (discontinuous noun phrases). ‘ãâì í⮣® ¥­¨ï ¨««îáâà¨àãî⠯ਬ¥àë:
The fact is established that A 2 equals zero.
An operator was considered such that its spectrum is real.
’ ª®¥ ¡ « ­á¨à®¢ ­¨¥ áâàãªâãàë ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï | 㤮¡­ë© á⨫¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨© ¯à¨¥¬. ‚®§ì¬¨â¥ ¥£® ­ ¢®®à㦥­¨¥.
®¤¢®¤ï ¨â®£¨, § 䨪á¨à㥬 ¯à®á⥩襥 ¯à ¢¨«®:
ᯥ।¨ | permanently, habitually;
᧠¤¨ | temporarily, speci cally.

ƒ« ¢ 20
à ¢¨«ì­® ¯®¤¡¨à ©â¥ Tenses
Š®à४⭮áâì ‚ 襣® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¢ ¨§¢¥áâ­®© ¬¥à¥ § ¢¨á¨â ®â ¢ë¡®à ¯®¤å®¤ï饩 ä®à¬ë ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥¬ëå £« £®«®¢.
„«ï ­ã¦¤ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ‚ ¬ ¯®«¥§­® § ãç¨âì á«¥¤ãî騩 ¬¨­¨ªãàá ¢ ¯à¨¬¥à å, ¨««îáâà¨àãî騩 ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ®á®¡¥­­®á⨠¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï ¢à¥¬¥­ £« £®«®¢.

Minicourse in Tenses
The Simple is welcome.
The Present is and tells us what is on.
The Past was and told us what was on.
The Present Perfect has been and still is.
The Past Perfect had gone in the Past.
Since any Past, some Future has been rooted.
The Future loves will.
’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬, ¢ ª®­áâ â¨àãî饩 ç á⨠‚ë ¢¯®«­¥ ¬®¦¥â¥, ª ª
¯à ¢¨«®, ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì the Simple Present Tense, ¯à¨ 㪠§ ­¨¨ ­
¨¬¥î騥áï १ã«ìâ âë ¯à¥¤è¥á⢥­­¨ª®¢ | the Simple Past Tense

ƒ«. 20. Tenses

69

¨, ­ ª®­¥æ, ¯à¨ 㪠§ ­¨¨ ­ ¡ã¤ã饥 | the Simple Future Tense.
‘⮨⠯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª®¥ ¨á祧­®¢¥­¨¥ shall. ‚ ¢¥áì¬ ¯®¯ã«ïà­®¬ ᮢ६¥­­®¬ á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª¥ \A Dictionary of Modern
American Usage" ¥£® ¢â®à B. Garner ®â¬¥ç ¥â:
\...with only minor exceptions, will has become the universal word
to express futurity, regardless of whether the subject is in the rst,
second, or third person."
®«¥¥ â®­ª¨¥ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ á¢ï§ ­ë á progressive and
perfective aspects. Ž progressive à¥çì ¯®©¤¥â ¢ £«. 22. Žâ­®á¨â¥«ì­®
perfective ¬­®£®¥ ‚ ¬ à áªà®¥â ¤®¢®«ì­® ᪮࡭ ï ª®­áâ â æ¨ï:
\...a distressingly large number of educated speakers of English are
at least mildly hostile to perfect tenses." (B. Garner)
(Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ synesis | ᮣ« ᮢ ­¨¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣® á®
᪠§ã¥¬ë¬ ¢ ¯®á«¥¤­¥¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ®áãé¥á⢫¥­® ¯® «®£¨ç¥áª¨¬
ý ­â¨£à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¬þ ®á­®¢ ­¨ï¬: a ... large number of ... are.)
‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â, ¯® ¢®§¬®¦­®áâ¨, ¢®§¤¥à¦ âìáï ®â ¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨ï 㪠§ ­­ëå ¤¥«¨ª â­ëå ¢à¥¬¥­ ¨«¨, ¢® ¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥, ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ¨å ®á®§­ ­­®, ®á¢¥¦¨¢ ᢮¨ §­ ­¨ï ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãîé¨å à §¤¥«®¢ ­£«¨©áª®©
£à ¬¬ ⨪¨.

ƒ« ¢ 21
‚ ¬ ¯à¨£®¤¨âáï áâàãªâãà­ ï
ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢
à ¢¨«ì­®áâì ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¢® ¬­®£®¬ ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥âáï ‚ 訬¨ ­ ¢ëª ¬¨ ¢ à ¡®â¥ á £« £®« ¬¨ (verbs), ª ç¨á«ã ª®â®àëå ¯à¨­ïâ® ®â­®á¨âì
ª ª £« £®«ì­ë¥ ¨¤¨®¬ë (phrasal verbs), â ª ¨ ¯à¥¤«®¦­ë¥ £« £®«ë
(prepositional verbs). Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ¨­®£¤ phrasal verbs ¤¥«ïâ ­
ª« ááë verb + preposition; verb + adverb; verb + adverb + preposition. Žâ­®á¨â¥«ì­® phrasal verbs § ¯®¬­¨â¥:
\Phrasal verbs tend to be informal, and in formal writing it is advisable to replace some of them with single verbs where possible...."
(Longman Guide to English Usage)
‚ áâàãªâãà­®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¥ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢, ¢ª«îç îé ï á«¥¤ãî騥 ¯®­ïâ¨ï. Linking (¨«¨ intensive) verb | £« £®«, ¤¥©áâ¢ãî騩 ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ᪠§ã¥¬®£®, à áè¨àïî饣® ᢥ¤¥­¨ï ® ¯®¤«¥¦ 饬, â. ¥. â ª®© £« £®«, § ª®â®àë¬
¢ à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ á«¥¤ã¥â \subject complement" |
¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ ª ¯®¤«¥¦ 饬ã. ®á«¥¤­¨© â¥à¬¨­ ®§­ ç ¥â í«¥¬¥­â
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, ¤®áâ ¢«ïî騩 ¨­ä®à¬ æ¨î ® ¯®¤«¥¦ 饬.
”®à¬ «ì­®¥ ãâ®ç­¥­¨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­¨ï linking verbs (­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®¥
¤«ï ¡®«ì襩 áâண®á⨠¨ ¨­®£¤ ®¯ã᪠¥¬®¥ «¨­£¢¨áâ ¬¨) á®á⮨â
¢ ⮬, çâ®
( ) à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ᮤ¥à¦¨â ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥, ᪠§ã¥¬®¥ ¨ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥;

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

71

(¡) subject complement ­¥ ï¥âáï ¯ãáâë¬.
®-àãá᪨ â ª¨¥ £« £®«ë ¨¬¥­ãîâ á¢ï§ãî騬¨ ¨«¨ £« £®« ¬¨-á¢ï§ª ¬¨ (« ⨭᪨© â¥à¬¨­ | copula). Ž¡ëç­® ⨯ linking ®¡®§­ ç îâ ᨬ¢®«®¬ [L] ¨«¨ ¯ãáâë¬ ¨¤¥­â¨ä¨ª â®à®¬. Linking verb ­¥á¥â
¨ äã­ªæ¨î ⨯ §­ ª à ¢¥­á⢠, ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢® äà §¥ \It was I who
invented A ."
¥ ¨¬¥î騥 subject complement £« £®«ë ­ §ë¢ îâ íªá⥭ᨢ­ë¬¨. ˆå à §¤¥«ïîâ ­ ¤¢ ª« áá : ¯¥à¥å®¤­ë¥ | transitive (ᨬ¢®«¨ç¥áª¨ [T]) ¨ ­¥¯¥à¥å®¤­ë¥ | intransitive (ᨬ¢®«¨ç¥áª¨ [I]). ‡
­¥¯¥à¥å®¤­ë¬ £« £®«®¬ ¯® ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­¨î ­¥ ¤®«¦­® ¡ëâì object (=
®¡ê¥ªâ­®¥, ¯àאַ¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥), å®âï § ­¨¬ ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì adjunct (=
®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮ ¨«¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢥­­ ï äà § ). â® ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥â,
çâ® subject complement ¤«ï ­ á ­¥ ¢ëà ¦ ¥âáï á ¯®¬®éìî prepositional phrase (â ª®© ¯®¤å®¤ ¯à¨­ïâ ­¥ ¢á¥¬¨).
’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬, ᨬ¢®« [T], ¢áâà¥ç¥­­ë© ã £« £®« , ®§­ ç ¥â,
çâ® (å®âï ¡ë ¢ ®¤­®¬ ¨§ ᢮¨å §­ 祭¨©) ®­ ¬®¦¥â á«ã¦¨âì ᪠§ã¥¬ë¬ ¯® ªà ©­¥© ¬¥à¥ ¢ ®¤­®¬ ¯à ¢¨«ì­® ¯®áâ஥­­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨,
ᮤ¥à¦ 饬 ¯àאַ¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥. à¨ í⮬ ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ îâ, çâ® verb
pattern | ¢¨¤, áâàãªâãà | £« £®«ì­®£® ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨
ï¥âáï ®¡à §ç¨ª®¬ ¤«ï ¯®¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ ¯®¤å®¤ïé¨å ¯® á¬ëá«ã ­®¢ëå
¯®¤«¥¦ é¨å ¨ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨©. ˆ­®£¤ âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë¥ £« £®«ë ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ª ª ­¥âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë¥ | ¡¥§ ®¡ê¥ªâ®¢. ’ ª¨¥ ¨å ¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨ï
¯à¨­ïâ® ­ §ë¢ âì ¡á®«îâ­ë¬¨.
‚®â ­¥áª®«ìª® ¯à¨¬¥à®¢ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­®© ­®¬¥­ª« âãàë.
[L]
[L]
[I]
[I]
[I]
[T]

This estimate is correct.
The set theoretic stance becomes an obsession.
We refer to the next book.
He hesitates to vote.
My stay in London/New York lasted for a fortnight/two weeks.
The present exposition involves false hopes.

ƒ« £®«ì­ë¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï ®¡áâ®ï⥫쭮 ª« áá¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­ë. ‚ ¬ ¯®«¥§­® §­ âì å®âï ¡ë ç áâì í⮩ ª« áá¨ä¨ª 樨.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ᨬ¢®«
[Tn] ®§­ ç ¥â âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë© £« £®«, âॡãî騩 ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¯àאַ£®
¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï ¨¬ï áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥ ¨«¨ äà §ã, ¨£à îéãî ¥£® ஫ì,
¨«¨ ¬¥á⮨¬¥­¨¥ (noun, ¨«¨ noun phrase, ¨«¨ pronoun) | ª®à®âª®
[n]. à¨¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¢ëè¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ¤¥¬®­áâà¨àã¥â, çâ® involve ­¥

72

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

¯à®áâ® [T]-£« £®«, ­® ¨ ¯à¨­ ¤«¥¦¨â £à㯯¥ [Tn]. ‚®â ¤à㣨¥ ¢ ਭâë.
[Tf]
[Tw]
[Tw]
[Tt]
[Tg]
[Tnt]

We assume that A equals B .
Now I demonstrate how to de ne a verb pattern.
Recall what you were told.
I want to express my admiration.
We thus nish experimenting with notation.
Lemma 1 enables us to prove Theorem 2.

’ ¡«¨æ , ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ ï ¢ Appendix 4, ¯®§¢®«ï¥â ¯à®¢¥à¨âì ‚ è¨ ­ ¢ëª¨ ¢ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¨ à á¯à®áâà ­¥­­ëå ¢ ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãॠ£« £®«®¢. ®¤ç¥àª­¥¬, çâ® ®âáãâá⢨¥ ᨬ¢®« + ¢ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ã-

î饩 ¯®§¨æ¨¨ ¬ âà¨æë ®§­ ç ¥â ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®áâì ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï 㪠§ ­­®© ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ ä®à¬ë ¤«ï £« £®« , áâ®ï饣®

¢ à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®© áâப¥. ®«¥¥ ¯®«­®¥ ¯®­¨¬ ­¨¥ á¬ë᫠ᨬ¢®«®¢ [Tf], [Tw], [Tt], [Tg], [Tnt] ®¯¨à ¥âáï ­ ¤¢ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å
¯®­ïâ¨ï: nite clause ¨ non nite clause. ‚®â ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî騥 ¯®ïá­¥­¨ï . Š¢¥àª ¨ ¤à.
\The nite clause always contains a subject as well as a predicate,
except in the case of commands and ellipsis.... In contrast, non nite
clauses can be constructed without a subject and usually are."
„®¯®«­¨â¥«ì­®¥ ⮫ª®¢ ­¨¥ á®á⮨⠢ ⮬, çâ® nite clause ᮤ¥à¦¨â
nite verb phrase (£« £®« ¢ ä®à¬¥ nite). ®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥âáï, çâ® nite
verb ®¡« ¤ ¥â ¢á¥© ¢®§¬®¦­®© âਡã⨪®© ­£«¨©áª®£® £« £®« |
㪠§ ­¨¥¬ ­ Tense, Aspect, Voice, Mood. ‚ë, ª®­¥ç­®, ¯®¬­¨â¥,
çâ® Tense | íâ® Past, Present, Future; Aspect | De nite, Inde nite,
Continuous (Progressive), Perfect; Voice | íâ® Passive ¨«¨ Active ¨,
­ ª®­¥æ, Mood | íâ® Indicative, Imperative, Conditional, Subjunctive.
”㭪樮­ «ì­®, a nite verb phrase á¢ï§ ­ á ¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­ë¬
ý­®à¬ «ì­ë¬þ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥¬ £« £®« | ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ᪠§ã¥¬®£® ¢
à冷¢®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨. Non nite forms (¨­®£¤ ¨å ­ §ë¢ îâ verbals)
| íâ® ¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢ë, ing-ä®à¬ë, participles. ¥ª®­¥ç­ë¥ ä®à¬ë £« £®« ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¯à¥¤¨ª ⮢ ⮫쪮 ¢ ¯®à浪¥ ¨áª«î祭¨ï (¢á¯®¬­¨â¥ ®¡ ¡á®«îâ­®© ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨).
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® ¢ nite clause £« £®« ¯® ¯®­ïâ¨î ¯®ï¢«ï¥âáï ¢ nite form, â. ¥. ¢ ⮬ ¢¨¤¥, ª ª®© âॡãîâ ®¡ëç­ë¥ ¯à ¢¨«

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

73

ᮣ« ᮢ ­¨ï ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣® ¨ ᪠§ã¥¬®£®. à¨ í⮬ that ¢ëáâ㯠¥â
¢ ª ç¥á⢥ á®î§ . ‚ á«ãç ¥ non nite clause ­ §¢ ­­ë¥ ®£à ­¨ç¥­¨ï,
à §ã¬¥¥âáï, ­¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ.
”®à¬ë [Tt] (= [T]+[t] = [T] + to in nitive clause) ¨ [Tg] (= [T] +
ing-form) ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ non nite clauses. Š ä®à¬¥ [Tt] ¯à¨¬ëª ¥â [It],
â. ¥. [I]+[t].
[It] He agreed to save les.
‚ ­£«¨©áª®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¥ clause ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ ¥âáï §¤¥áì ª ª adjunct,
­¥ object. ‚ ¯à ªâ¨ª¥ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ íâ® à §«¨ç¨¥ ®¡ëç­® ­¥áãé¥á⢥­­®, ¯®í⮬㠭¨¦¥ ¤«ï ¯à®áâ®âë ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­ ¥¤¨­ë©
ᨬ¢®« [Tt].
„®¯®«­¥­¨¥ £« £®« ¢ ä®à¬¥ [Tf] ¨¬¥­ãîâ that-clause ¨«¨, ¡®«¥¥ ¯®«­®, nite that-clause (§¤¥áì that | á®î§, ­¥ relative pronoun).
‘¨¬¢®« ± ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ [Tf] ®§­ ç ¥â ¤®¯ãá⨬®áâì ä®à¬ë Present Subjunctive ¢ à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®¬ that-clause.
®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ¢ ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ⥪áâ å ( ‚ è ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¤®«¦¥­
¡ëâì â ª®¢ë¬) á«®¢® that ¢ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¨ [Tf] ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ®¯ã᪠îâ.
® ¯à ¢¤¥ £®¢®àï, ¯à®¡«¥¬ á®åà ­¥­¨ï ¨«¨ ®¯ã᪠­¨ï that, á®î§ ¢ [Tf], ¨/¨«¨ â ¦¥ ¯à®¡«¥¬ ¤«ï that ¢ ä㭪樨 ¬¥á⮨¬¥­¨ï
­¥ áâ®«ì ¯à®áâë ¤«ï à¥è¥­¨ï. ‘à ¢­¨â¥ á«¥¤ãî騥 㪠§ ­¨ï:
\...this omission (of that) is generally avoided in literary writings."
(E. Partridge)
\...this omission of the relative pronoun, so far from being a fault,
is a genuine English idiom of long standing." (O. Jespersen)
ˆ§¢¥áâ­ë¥ â®­ª®á⨠á¢ï§ ­ë á ä®à¬®© [Tw] (= [T] + wh-clause).
‚ ­¥© ¯àï¬ë¬ £« £®«ì­ë¬ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ ¬®¦¥â á«ã¦¨âì ª ª nite
clause, â ª ¨ non nite clause. „®¯®«­¥­¨¥ ¤«ï verb pattern [Tw] ¤®«¦­® ­ 稭 âìáï wh-í«¥¬¥­â®¬ (= wh-á«®¢®¬), ¢ë¡¨à ¥¬ë¬ ¨§ ᯨ᪠:
which, whose, who, whom, what;
which + noun, what + noun, etc.;
why, when, where, how;
whether, if, as if, as though.
(ƒà㯯¨à®¢ª wh-á«®¢ ¯® áâப ¬ ¯à®¢¥¤¥­ ¯® á«¥¤ãîé¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã. ‚ ¯¥à¢®© áâ®ïâ pronouns, ¢® ¢â®à®© ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­ ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï a determiner + noun, ¢ âà¥â쥩 áâப¥ à ᯮ«®¦¥­ë adverbs,

74

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

¢ ç¥â¢¥à⮩ | conjunctions.) ‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥, çâ® á® á«®¢ whether ¨ if
¢ ä®à¬¥ [Tw] ­ 稭 îâáï ⮫쪮 nite clauses. ‚ ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ⥪áâ å ¯à¨ ¢®§¬®¦­®á⨠¢ë¡®à ¬¥¦¤ã if ¨ whether §¤¥áì (ª ª ¨ ¢ ¤à㣨å á«ãç ïå) á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¥¤¯®ç¥áâì whether. ‘®î§ë as if, as though
®¡ëç­® âॡãîâ subjunctive.
‘ nite that-clause ¨ wh-interrogative clause á¢ï§ ­ ¢ ¦­ ï ®á®¡¥­­®áâì. ’ ª¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¯® ®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã ­¥ ¬®£ãâ ¡ëâì
object complement, ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ ª ®¡ê¥ªâã (®¡ ¨áª«î祭¨ïå ⨯
factive nouns á¬. £«. 30). ’ ª, àãá᪠ï äà §
ý„ ¢ ©â¥ ¨§ã稬 ®¯¥à â®à A , ª®â®àë© ¬ë ¢¢¥«¨ ¢ £« ¢¥ 3þ.
¯®- ­£«¨©áª¨ ¤®«¦­ ¡ëâì ¯¥à¥¢¥¤¥­ ª ª
\Let us study the operator A that was introduced in Chapter 3."
ˆá¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ clause ¢ ä®à¬¥ \that we introduced in Chapter 3" |
᮫¥æ¨§¬. à¨¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®, ª®­¥ç­®, ­¥ ®â¬¥­ï¥â ª®­áâàãªæ¨©
⨯ apposition ¨ subject complement:
Infer the fact that the operator A equals zero.
It is clear whose faces were separated by the hyperplane.
ˆ­®£¤ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ [Tf] (= [T]+[f]) ¢áâà¥ç ¥âáï ¢ ­¥áª®«ìª® à áè¨à¥­­ëå ¢ ਠ­â å ¢¨¤ [T]+[n]+[f] ¨«¨ [T]+to+[n]+[f]. à¨ ­¥®¡ï§ ⥫쭮© ¢®§¬®¦­®á⨠⠪¨å ä®à¬ ¯¥à¢ ï 㪠§ ­ ᨬ¢®«®¬ ( )+,
¢â®à ï | §­ ª®¬ (to)+ ¢ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饬 ¬¥á⥠⠡«¨æë. ’¥
¦¥ ᮣ« 襭¨ï ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ ¤«ï [Tw]. Žâáãâá⢨¥ + ¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨
( ) ®§­ ç ¥â ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮áâì ¤ ­­®£® ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï. ®¤ç¥àª­¨â¥, çâ®
¢ íâ¨å ¡®«¥¥ ¯®«­ëå ä®à¬ å clause ¯®-¯à¥¦­¥¬ã ï¥âáï direct object | [dob] (á।­¨© í«¥¬¥­â [n] | íâ® indirect object [iob]). Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® ­¥ ¢á¥ â® [Tw], çâ® â ª¨¬ ª ¦¥âáï.  ¯à¨¬¥à:
[Tn] Compare the norms of X which were introduced above.
[Tnf] Remind A that B = C .
[T(to)nf] Prove to A that B = C .
‚ ª®«®­ª¥ [Tn] á ¯®¬®éìî ᨬ¢®« ( ) ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë £« £®«ì­ë¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï ⨯ [T]+ [n]+[t] (⮫ª®¢ ­¨¥ ᨬ¢®«®¢ ( ) ¨ ( )+
¯à¥¦­¥¥). à¨ í⮬ ¤®¯ã᪠îâáï á«¥¤ãî騥 âਠ¢®§¬®¦­®áâ¨.
[Tnt] A causes B to sum C .
([dob]=[n]+[t])
[Tnt] A forbids B to omit C .
([dob]=[t], [iob]=[n])

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢
[Tnt]

A

convinces B to become C .

75

([dob]=[n], [t] is an object
complement)

®á«¥¤­¨© ¢ ਠ­â ¢ë¤¥«¥­ ᨬ¢®«®¬ (be)+.
”à §ë ⨯ \A o ers an opportunity to enter the club" ­¥ ®â­®áïâáï ª [Tnt] ¢®¢á¥ (íâ® [Tn]).
Žâ¬¥â¨¬, ç⮠ᨬ¢®« + ¢ á⮫¡æ¥ [Tnt] ¯®§¢®«ï¥â ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì
¨ ¢ ਠ­â bare in nitive (â. ¥. ä®à¬ã [Tni] = [T]+[n] + ¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢
¡¥§ ᢮¥£® §­ ª (the sign of in nitive) | ç áâ¨æë to).  ¯à¨¬¥à,
•

[Tni] We feel it be solvable.
[Tni] We observe the cloud condense.
Š ª ®¡ëç­®, ®âáãâá⢨¥ + (¢ ᨬ¢®«¥ +) ¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨ ®§­ ç ¥â ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮áâì bare in nite (ª ª ¢® ¢â®à®¬ ¯à¨¬¥à¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï
[Tni]).
‚ á⮫¡æ¥ [Tnn] (= [T]+[n]+[n]) ®¡ê¥¤¨­¥­ë á«¥¤ãî騥 ¤¢ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï. ¥à¢®¥ | íâ® âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë© £« £®« + [dob] (¢ ä®à¬¥
[n])+[object complement] (¢ ä®à¬¥ [n]). ‚®â ¨««îáâà æ¨ï:
•

•

[Tnn] He proclaimed it the Loch Ness Monster.
‚â®à®¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ | £« £®« + [iob]+[dob]. ‚®â ®¡à §æë.
[Tnn] Axioms give this theory sound grounds.
[Tnn] He writes me a letter.
®á«¥¤­¨¥ ¯à¨¬¥àë ¤®¯ã᪠îâ áâ ­¤ àâ­®¥ ¯à¥®¡à §®¢ ­¨¥, ¢ ª®â®à®¬ indirect object ¯¥à¥å®¤¨â ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦­®¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥:
[Tnn] Axioms give sound grounds for a theory.
[Tnn] He writes a letter to me.
à¨­ï⮠㪠§ë¢ âì, çâ® ¢ ¯®¤®¡­ëå á«ãç ïå ¯à¥¤«®£ for á¢ï§ ­ á ¨¤¥¥© \bene t", ¯à¥¤«®£ to | c ¨¤¥¥© \receive." ‚ ¦­ ï ¤¥â «ì: ¡¥á¯à¥¤«®¦­ ï ä®à¬ [Tnn] á ®¤ã襢«¥­­ë¬ indirect object ¤®¯ãá⨬
¢á¥£¤ . ᫨ ¦¥ iob ­¥®¤ã襢«¥­, ­ ¤¥¦­®áâ¨ à ¤¨ ¯à¨¬¥­ï©â¥ ¨áª«îç¨â¥«ì­® ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ á ¯à¥¤«®£®¬.
“¤®¡­® ¢ë¤¥«¨âì ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ [Tna], ᨬ¢®«¨§¨àãî饥 âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë© £« £®«, § ª®â®àë¬ á«¥¤ã¥â [n] ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ direct object; ¯à¨
í⮬ [n] á­ ¡¦¥­® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ | complement | ¢ ä®à¬¥ [a], â. ¥.
adjective ¨«¨ adjective phrase. ‘¨¬¢®«¨ç¥áª¨ [Tna] := [T]+[n]+[a].

76

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

‚ ª®«®­ª¥ [Tnn] ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë ¨ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦­ë¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï [Tnpr] ⨯
[Tnpr]:=[T]+[n]+[prepositional phrase]
= [T]+[n]+preposition+[n],
£¤¥ 㪠§ ­­ë© ¯à¥¤«®£ ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¢§ïâ á।¨ â ¡«¨ç­ëå. Žâ¬¥âìâ¥,
ç⮠ᨬ¢®« [n] §¤¥áì á®åà ­¥­ § ¯à¥¤«®¦­ë¬ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬, ª ª®¢ë¬
¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¢ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ ¨ ing-clause. Ž¤­ ª® íâ ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì, ª ª
£®¢®àïâ «¨­£¢¨áâë, «¥ªá¨ç¥áª¨ § ¢¨á¨¬ (ã¯à ¢«ï¥âáï ã§ãᮬ).
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ á«®¢® as. £® ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ [Tnn]
¤®¯ã᪠¥â ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ [T]+[n]+as+[n] ¨ [T]+[n]+[as]+[a]. ® ®¡é¥¬ã
¯à ¢¨«ã, as ¯à¨­¨¬ ¥â ing-form.
‘®£« 襭¨ï ® ¯à¥¤«®£ å ॣ㫨àãîâ ¨ ª®«®­ªã [I], £¤¥ ¢¢®¤¨âáï ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ [Ipr], â. ¥. [I]+preposition+[n]. ‚ ­¥ª®â®àëå á«ãç ïå
ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¤¯®« £ ¥â ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®£ £¥àã­¤¨¥¬. ‚ íâ¨å
á«ãç ïå ¯à¥¤«®£ ¢ë¤¥«¥­.
‚®â ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ®¡à §æë.
[Tna] We think the set absorbing.
[Tnn] We refer to A as a manifold without boundary.
[Tnn] The proof is considered as very much involved.
[Ipr] Withhold from chitchatting.
 §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¢ â ¡«¨æ¥ ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë ¤ «¥ª® ­¥ ¢á¥ ¢®§¬®¦­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦­ë¥ ä®à¬ë, «¨èì ⥠¨§ ­¨å, ª®â®àë¥ ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ â¥á­® á¢ï§ ­ë
á ã¯à ¢«ïî騬 £« £®«®¬. ‘¢®¡®¤­ë¥ ª®¬¡¨­ 樨 | ¢¥¤ì ¬­®£¨¥
®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢥­­ë¥ ®¡®à®âë § ¤ îâáï ¯à¥¤«®¦­ë¬¨ äà § ¬¨ | ­¥
®£à ­¨ç¨¢ îâáï ­¨ç¥¬, ªà®¬¥ á¬ëá« . ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ¢ ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¤¥à¦ âìáï ¯à®¢¥à¥­­®£® ®¡à §æ . ’ ª, ᪠¦¥¬, ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï ⨯ \substitute A by/with B " the Concise Oxford
Dictionary ª¢ «¨ä¨æ¨àã¥â ª ª vulgar. (Š®­¥ç­®, by ¨ with ¡á®«îâ­®
­ ¬¥á⥠á replace, ¤«ï £« £®« substitute ¯¨è¨â¥ substitute B for A .)
‚­¨¬ ⥫쭮 ¯à®¤ã¬ ©â¥ ¨ ®á®§­ ©â¥ â® ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮, çâ®
ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï á® á«®¢®¬ as £®à §¤® ¡®«¥¥ ।ª¨ ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥, 祬 ¨å ­ «®£¨ ¢ àãá᪮¬ (¯®á«¥¤­¨¥ ¯®ç⨠¯®¢á¥¬¥áâ­ë). ¥
§ ¡ë¢ ©â¥ â ª¦¥ ® ­¥âà ­§¨â¨¢­ëå £« £®« å ⨯ act, appear, etc.,
ª®â®àë¥ ç áâ® ¯à¨­¨¬ î⠯।«®¦­ë¥ äà §ë á as. Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬,
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ \It acts as an operator" ¤®¯ã᪠¥â ¤¢ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å
¯®¤å®¤ . à¨ ¯¥à¢®¬ §¤¥áì à áᬠâਢ ¥âáï ­¥âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë© £« £®«
act ¢ ä®à¬¥ [Ipr]. à¨ ¢â®à®¬ | à¥çì ¨¤¥â ® âà ­§¨â¨¢­®¬ prepositional verb \act as", ª®â®àë© ãç áâ¢ã¥â ¢ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¨ [Tn]. âã

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

77

®á®¡¥­­®áâì ¢ ¦­® ¯®¬­¨âì ¯à¨ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¨ á¯à ¢®ç­ëå ¬ â¥à¨«®¢.
‘«®¢® as ᮤ¥à¦¨âáï ¢® ¬­®£¨å ãá⮩稢ëå ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå (as
well, as a general rule, as a token of ..., etc.) ¨, ª®­¥ç­®, ¢ ä®à¬ å as
... as (á ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬ ¨«¨ ­ à¥ç¨¥¬ ­ ¬¥á⥠â஥â®ç¨ï). Ÿá­®,
çâ® ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ â ª¨å as ­¥ á¢ï§ ­® á ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï¬¨ [Tnpr] ¨ [Ipr].
‘ª ¦¥¬, á«¥¤ãî饥 ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥:
As a result of taking adjoints, we obtain (5.2).
íâ®, à §ã¬¥¥âáï, [Tn]. ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ý᪮à ïþ äà § ⨯
He introduced Professor Smith as the chair.
¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â ᮡ®© ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æã | ý¢¨áïçãîþ ª®­áâàãªæ¨î. ã¤ì⥠¢­¨¬ ⥫ì­ë ª as!
‚ á⮫¡æ¥ [Tnn] á®¡à ­ë ¨ ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¤à㣨¥ £« £®«ì­ë¥ ä®à¬ë. ’ ª, ᨬ¢®« out ¢ áâப¥ ¤«ï nd ®§­ ç ¥â ¯à¨¥¬«¥¬®áâì \Find
A out." €­ «®£¨ç­ ï ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ¨««îáâà¨àã¥âáï á«®¢®¬ down
(¡¥§ ᪮¡®ª) ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ [Tnn] ¨ áâப¥ á note. â § ¯¨áì ¢ª«îç ¥â
ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ \Note down A ."
’¥à¬¨­ \phrasal verbs" ­¥ á«ãç ©­® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ïâ ª ª ý£« £®«ì­ë¥
¨¤¨®¬ëþ. ‡­ 祭¨¥ áâ¥à¦­¥¢®£® £« £®« , ¯à¥®¡à §®¢ ­­®£® á ¯®¬®éìî ¯à¥¤«®£®¢ ¨ ç áâ¨æ, ¯à¥â¥à¯¥¢ ¥â ç áâ® ­¥¯à¥¤áª §ã¥¬ë¥ ¨§¬¥­¥­¨ï. Žâ¬¥âì⥠⠪¦¥, çâ® ¢á¥ £« £®«ë ®¡á㦤 ¥¬®© â ¡«¨æë
®â­®áïâáï ª ⨯ã [Tn].
 §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ᢥ¤¥­¨ï ® ª« áá¨ä¨ª 樨 ­¥¯®«­ë.
¥ª®â®àë¥ ¢ª«î祭­ë¥ ¢ â ¡«¨æã £« £®«ë ¨­®£¤ ¤®¯ã᪠îâ ¨­ë¥
ᯮᮡë 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï. „¥â «¨ ¯à¨ ¦¥« ­¨¨ ¬®¦­® ¨§¢«¥çì ¨§ á¯¥æ¨ «¨§¨à®¢ ­­ëå á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª®¢. Žá®¡¥­­®á⨠ã¯à ¢«¥­¨©, á¢ï§ ­­ëå á ing-ä®à¬®© ¨ ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­­ëå ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ [Tg], ¯®¤à®¡­® ®¡á㦤 îâáï ­¨¦¥ ¢ £«. 24.
‚ ¬ ¯®«¥§­® ã¡¥¤¨âìáï, çâ® ¬¥â®¤ë ᮤ¥à¦ ⥫쭮© ­ «®£¨¨ ¨
ª «ìª¨à®¢ ­¨ï á àãá᪮£® ï§ëª ¯à¨¢®¤ïâ ª ­¥¢¥à­ë¬ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨¬ ä®à¬ ¬. ’ ª, ¯®-àãá᪨ á®ç¥â ­¨¥ ý­ 稭 âì (¯à¨áâ㯠âì),
çâ® A = B þ ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®. ‘®®â¢¥âá⢥­­® ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ [Tf] ¤«ï
\commence" ®âáãâáâ¢ã¥â. Ž¤­ ª® ý¨áª«îç ¥¬, çâ® A = B þ ¢®§¬®¦­®, \exclude that A equals B " | ᮫¥æ¨§¬. ‘®¢¬¥áâ­®¥ à áᬮâ७¨¥ á«®¢ \prove" ¨ \disprove" â ª¦¥ ¤®«¦­® ¯à®¡ã¤¨âì ‚ èã
®á¬®âà¨â¥«ì­®áâì.

78

ƒ«. 21. ‘âàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢

‡­ ª ∗ ¢ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饬 ¬¥á⥠®¡á㦤 ¥¬®© ¬ âà¨æë
ᨬ¢®«¨§¨àã¥â ¨áª«îç¨â¥«ì­ãî ®¯ á­®áâì.

Ž­ 㪠§ë¢ ¥â ý«®¦­ëå ¤à㧥© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª þ: ¯®¬¥ç¥­­®¥ â ª¨¬ §­ ª®¬ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ ¢®§¬®¦­® ¢ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥, ­® ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®
¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬. Žè¨¡ª¨, ¢ë§¢ ­­ë¥ «®¦­ë¬¨ ¤àã§ìﬨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª ,
®ç¥­ì à á¯à®áâà ­¥­ë. ®¬­¨â¥ ®¡ í⮬!
‚ ¯¥à¢®¬ á⮫¡æ¥ §­ ª ∗ ­¥ ¯à®áâ ¢«¥­, â ª ª ª §¤¥áì ®­ ¬®¦¥â
¡ëâì à §¬¥é¥­ ¢® ¢á¥å ¯ãáâëå ¯®§¨æ¨ïå ¡¥§ ¨áª«î祭¨ï. ®¬¨¬® ⮣®, ª®à®âª¨¥ ý­¥¯¥à¥å®¤­ë¥þ äà §ë ⨯ ýŒë ¢ë¡¨à ¥¬, ­ á
¢ë¡¨à îâ ...þ, ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ª®â®àëå ᯮᮡ¥­ ¢ë§¢ âì § âà㤭¥­¨ï, ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ⥪áâ å ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ ­¥ ¢áâà¥ç îâáï.  ª®­¥æ, ¢ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå à㪮¢®¤áâ¢ å ¯à¨­ïâë à §«¨ç­ë¥ áå¥¬ë ª« áá¨ä¨ª 樨 verb
patterns. ’¥ªã饥 ¨§«®¦¥­¨¥ ®¯¨à ¥âáï ¢ ®á­®¢­®¬ ­ ç¥â¢¥à⮥ ¨§¤ ­¨¥ (1989 £.) á«®¢ àï A. S. Hornby.

ƒ« ¢ 22
“ ‚ á ¥áâì ®á­®¢ ­¨ï ¨§¡¥£ âì
Continuous Tenses
‚ ¦­¥©è¥¥ ¨§ ­¨å â®, çâ® ¯à¨ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ­ ãç­®£® ⥪áâ ¡¥§
â ª¨å ¢à¥¬¥­ ®¡ëç­® ¬®¦­® ®¡®©â¨áì.
„à㣮¥ ­¥ ¬¥­¥¥ áãé¥á⢥­­®¥ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮ á®á⮨⠢ ⮬, çâ®
­¥ ¢á¥ £« £®«ë ¤®¯ã᪠î⠨ᯮ«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ ¤«ï \the Progressive" (¢
ä®à¬ å ⨯ be+ing-form).
‚뤥«ïîâ ª« ááë stative verbs ¨ dynamic verbs. ¥à¢ë¥ (stative)
¢ ®â«¨ç¨¥ ®â ¢â®àëå (dynamic) ­¥«ì§ï 㯮âॡ«ïâì ¢® ¢à¥¬¥­­ëå
ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå ⨯ Continuous.
Š stative ®â­®áïâ £« £®«ë:
•

•
•
•

•

¨­¥àâ­®£® ᮤ¥à¦ ­¨ï, á¢ï§ ­­ë¥ á ýà¥æ¨¯¨¥­â­®áâìîþ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣® | ®¡à 饭¨¥¬ ¤¥©á⢨ï ᪠§ã¥¬®£® £« £®« ­ ­¥£®:
hear, notice, see, astonish, impress, etc.;
í¬®æ¨®­ «ì­®£® á®áâ®ï­¨ï: adore, care for, like, hate, respect,
etc.;
¦¥« ­¨©: want, wish, desire, need, etc.;
¬ë᫨⥫ì­ëå ¯à®æ¥áᮢ: admire, assume, appreciate, believe, consider, doubt, expect, feel, imagine, know, mind, presume,
presuppose, realize, recognize, recollect, regard, remember, remind,
suppose, understand, etc.;
ᮮ⭮á¨â¥«ì­®áâ¨: apply, be, belong, concern, consist of, contain, depend, deserve, di er, equal, t, have, owe, own, possess,
remain, require, resemble, result, signify, stand for, suce, etc.;

80
•

ƒ«. 22. Continuous Tenses

¯à®ç¨¥ (­¥ ¤¨­ ¬¨ç¥áª¨¥): agree, appear, claim, consent, dis-

please, envy, fail to do, nd, forbid, forgive, interest, keep doing,
manage to do, mean, object, please, prefer, prevent, puzzle, realize,
refuse, satisfy, seem, sound, succeed, surprise, taste, tend, value.
à¨­ ¤«¥¦¨â «¨ £« £®« ª ⨯ã stative, ­¥ ¢á¥£¤ ¬®¦­® 㧭 âì ¨§
á«®¢ àï. ®«¥§­ë© ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨© ªà¨â¥à¨© á®á⮨⠢ ⮬, çâ® § ¢¥¤®¬® ­¥ ïîâáï stative £« £®«ë ¤¨­ ¬¨ç¥áª®£® 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï, ¨«¨
dynamic verbs.
Š ª« ááã dynamic ®â­®áïâ £« £®«ë:
• ¢ëà ¦ î騥 ¤¥ï⥫쭮áâì: ask, call, help, learn, look at, say,
work, write, etc.;
• ¢ëà ¦ î騥 ¯à®æ¥ááë: change, deteriorate, grow, integrate,
etc.;
• ®éã饭¨©: ache, hurt, etc.;
• ¯à®å®¤ïé¨å ᮡë⨩: arrive, fall, leave, lose, etc.;
• ¬®¬¥­â «ì­ëå ᮡë⨩: hit, jump, kick, knock, etc.
‘⮨⠧ ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® á £« £®« ¬¨ ⨯ stative ­¥«ì§ï 㯮âॡ«ïâì
process adjuncts (®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠®¡à § ¤¥©á⢨ï). ¥®á¬ëá«¥­­®
¯®ïá­ïâì manner or tools ®âáãâáâ¢ãî饣® ¯à®æ¥áá . ’ ª, äà §ë \We
know it without delay" ¨«¨ \Satisfy equation (1.7) by vanishing the
constant term" | ­¥¤®¯ãáâ¨¬ë¥ á®«¥æ¨§¬ë.
®«¥§­® ¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, çâ® § ¯à¥é¥­¨¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ä®à¬ã Progressive ­¥ª®â®à®£® £« £®« ª« áá stative ®â­î¤ì ­¥ ¨áª«îç ¥â ¯®ï¢«¥­¨© ¥£® ing-ä®à¬ ¢ participle clauses, ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¯à¥¤«®¦­ëå
¤®¯®«­¥­¨© ¨ ¨­ëå £¥àã­¤¨ «ì­ëå äã­ªæ¨ïå. ’ ª, ­¥«ì§ï ¯¨á âì:
\The set N is containing 1", ­® ¤®¯ãá⨬®: \Containing 1, the set N
turns out nonvoid."

ƒ« ¢ 23
Žáâ¥à¥£ ©â¥áì Passive
ƒ« ¢­ë¬¨ ®á­®¢ ­¨ï¬¨ ¤«ï ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï Passive á«ã¦ â ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®áâì ¨ ¦¥« ­¨¥ á®á।®â®ç¨âì ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ ®¡ê¥ªâ¥ ¤¥©á⢨ï
à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®£® ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
Longman Guide to English Usage ¢ à §¤¥«¥ \Passive" ¤ ¥â ¢ í⮩
á¢ï§¨, ¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, á«¥¤ãî騥 ­ áâ ¢«¥­¨ï.
\We recommend the active unless there is a good reason for using
the passive."
\In scienti c and technical writing, writers often use the passive
to place the emphasis on processes or experimental procedures....
Nevertheless, it is preferable to reduce the heavy frequency of the
passive in such writing."
é¥ ¦¥áâç¥ áä®à¬ã«¨à®¢ « ᢮î ४®¬¥­¤ æ¨î „¦. Žà¢¥««:
\Never use the passive where you can use the active."
 á¯à®áâà ­¥­­®áâì ¬¥â®¤ ­¥¯®«­®© ¨­¤ãªæ¨¨ ᯮᮡáâ¢ã¥â ⮬ã, çâ® ¬­®£¨¥ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª¨ áç¨â îâ ¢®§¬®¦­ë¬ ¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ âì ¯à®¨§¢®«ì­®¥ | ýä®à¬ «ì­® ­£«¨©áª®¥þ | ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥, â. ¥. ¯®¤¢¥à£ âì ¥£® Passive Transformation.
‚ è¥ ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮¥ ¯à ¢¨«® ¤®«¦­® á®áâ®ïâì ¢ ⮬, çâ®¡ë ¡¥§
á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå ®á­®¢ ­¨© ­¥ ¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ âì ý­¥­ áâ®ï騥þ | ­¥¤®¯ãáâ¨¬ë¥ | ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï. ˆ­ ç¥ £®¢®àï, ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ë¬ ãá«®¢¨¥¬
ª®à४⭮á⨠Passive ‚ ¬, ®áâ®à®¦­®áâ¨ à ¤¨, á«¥¤ã¥â áç¨â âì ­ «¨ç¨¥ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨ ¢¥à­®© ý¤¥¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ ­­®©þ ä®à¬ë.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¯à¨ à áᬮâ७¨¨ á«¥¤ãîé¨å äà § ‚ ¬ à §ã¬­® ®â¢¥áâ¨
¢â®àãî ¨§ ­¨å:

82

ƒ«. 23. Passive

Coecients were assumed to be evaluated.
Coecients were decided to be evaluated.
‚ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥, ¨§ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãîé¨å ¨á室­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨© ⮫쪮
¯¥à¢®¥ ï¥âáï ¯à ¢¨«ì­® ¯®áâ஥­­ë¬:
We assumed coecients to be evaluated.
We decided coecients to be evaluated.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ¢¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¢ëè¥ ¯à ¢¨«® | íâ® ¢á¥£® «¨èì
ý®áâ®à®¦­®¥þ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®¥ ãá«®¢¨¥. Ž­® ­¨ ¢ ª®¥¬ á«ãç ¥ ­¥ ï¥âáï ¤®áâ â®ç­ë¬ ¤«ï ª®à४⭮á⨠¯ áᨢ¨§ 樨.
®¬­¨â¥: ¢® ¬­®£¨å á«ãç ïå ¯ áᨢ¨§ æ¨ï ¯à ¢¨«ì­® ¯®áâ஥­­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨© ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬ ᮣ« á­® ï§ëª®¢ë¬ âà ¤¨æ¨ï¬.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¡á®«îâ­® ¯à¨¥¬«¥¬ë ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï:
We prefer functionals to be conjugate-linear.
Assumptions cause operators to extend initial data.
 áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ âì ¦¥ ¨å ¯® ä®à¬ «ì­ë¬ ®¡à §æ ¬ ­¥«ì§ï. ‘«¥¤ãî騥 ¢®§­¨ª î騥 ¨§ ­¨å ¯à¨ ä®à¬ «ì­®© ¯ áᨢ¨§ 樨 ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï | ­¥­ áâ®ï騥:
Functionals are preferred to be conjugate-linear.
Operators are caused (by assumptions) to extend initial data.
Œ¥¦¤ã ⥬ ä®à¬ [Tnt], ¢ ª®â®à®© ¢ ¨á室­ëå ¤«ï ¯®á«¥¤­¨å
¯à¨¬¥à®¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå ¯à¨¬¥­¥­ë £« £®«ë prefer, cause, ¢®®¡é¥
£®¢®àï, ®¡ëç­® ¤®¯ã᪠¥â ¯ áᨢ¨§ æ¨î. ‘।¨ ­ «®£¨ç­ëå ç áâëå ¤«ï ­ ãç­ëå ⥪á⮢ ¨áª«î祭¨©, ¯®¬¨¬® 㦥 ®â¬¥ç¥­­ëå,
䨣ãà¨àãîâ £« £®«ë bring, commit, intend, like ¨ ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¤à㣨¥
(¢ ä®à¬ å [Tnt]).
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® «î¡¨¬ë¥ ⥮à¥â¨ª ¬¨ ®¡®à®âë ⨯
ý¯ãáâì íâ® ¡ã¤¥â ⥬þ, ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨¬ë¥ ª ª \let this be that", ¯ áᨢ¨§ 樨 ­¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ â.
¨ ¢ ª ª¨å á«ãç ïå ­¥«ì§ï ¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ âì ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï á £« £®« ¬¨ have, resemble, equal ¨ ­¥¬­®£¨¬¨ ¤à㣨¬¨. ¥ª®â®àë¥ £« £®«ë, ­ ®¡®à®â, ¢ ᢮¨å ®¡ëç­ëå ä®à¬ å ¯à¥¤¯®ç¨â îâ Passive; ­ ¯à¨¬¥à: aliate, orient, motivate, promote ¨ â. ¯.
‡ ¯à¥é¥­ ¯ áᨢ¨§ æ¨ï ¢á¥å ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©, ¨á¯®«ì§ãîé¨å £« £®«ì­ë¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï [Tt], [Tg]. •®âï ¯® ®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã à §à¥è¥­
¯ áᨢ¨§ æ¨ï [Tn], [Tf] ¨ [Tw], ª ª ¨ ¤«ï [Tnt], §¤¥áì ¢áâà¥ç îâáï
¨áª«î祭¨ï.

ƒ«. 23. Passive

83

 ¯à¨¬¥à, ­¥«ì§ï ¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ âì á«¥¤ãî騥 ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï:
They get the following relations.
The Rolle Theorem says where to nd optima.
The supervisor sees how the calculation is accomplished.
We reason that the conjecture should be refuted.
‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ä®à¬ë [Tnn] (¢ª«îç ï ¢ ਠ­â á as) ®¡ëç­® ¤®¯ã᪠îâ the Passive Transformation.
®«¥§­® §­ âì, çâ® ¯ áᨢ¨§ 樨 ­¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ â ⥠¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï,
¢ ª®â®àëå á¢ï§ì ¬¥¦¤ã áã¡ê¥ªâ®¬ ¤¥©áâ¢¨ï ¨ ¥£® ®¡ê¥ªâ®¬ ¢ëà ¦¥­ á ¯®¬®éìî possessive (re exive or reciprocal) pronouns. ˆ­ ç¥
£®¢®àï, ­ «¨ç¨¥ á«®¢ ⨯ ourselves, their, etc. ®¡ëç­® ¡«®ª¨àã¥â
Passive Transformation.  ¯à¨¬¥à, äà §
Each operator determines its transpose.
¯® 㪠§ ­­ë¬ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¬ ¯ áᨢ¨§ 樨 ­¥ ¯®¤«¥¦¨â.
‘⮨⠥é¥ à § ¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, ç⮠㢫¥ç¥­¨¥ ¯ áᨢ®¬ ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ ¥âáï ª ª §«®ã¯®âॡ«¥­¨¥ (¨/¨«¨ | á। ¤«ï â ª®¢ëå). ‚ ª ç¥á⢥ ¨««îáâà 樨 ¬®¦¥â á«ã¦¨âì á«¥¤ãî騩 ¯à¨¬¥à, ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë©
. Š¢¥àª®¬ ¢ 㦥 æ¨â¨à®¢ ­­®© ¢ëè¥ ª­¨£¥ The Use of English.
\The speaker, Mr Derek Senior, had said: `Half the dilatoriness, the
passing of the bucks, the shirking of responsibility, and the want of
initiative ... could be eradicated overnight by simple expedient of
forbidding the use of the passive voice in any ocial document.'
This is no doubt a little optimistic, but we can see what is in Mr
Senior's mind."
áâì ¯®«¥§­ë© ¢­¥è­¨© ä®à¬ «ì­ë© ªà¨â¥à¨© ª®­âà®«ï § ç áâ®â®© passive voice. ˆ§¢¥áâ­®, çâ® ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ý¤¥¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ ­­®£®þ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ® 㪠§ë¢ ¥âáï ¢ ¯ áᨢ­®© ä®à¬¥ (â. ¥., ª ª
£®¢®àïâ, 䨣ãà¨àã¥â ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ retained object) ­¥ ¡®«¥¥ 祬 ¢ âà¥â¨ ॠ«ì­ëå ¯ áᨢ­ëå ª®­áâàãªæ¨© ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª . “ ‚ á ­¥â
®á­®¢ ­¨© ¬¥­ïâì íâã áâ â¨á⨪ã.
‚® ¢á¥å ¬ «®-¬ «ì᪨ ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ¯à®ï¢«ï©â¥ ¡¤¨â¥«ì­®áâì ¨ ª®­áã«ìâ¨àã©â¥áì á® á«®¢ ६. ‚ è¥ §®«®â®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®:
Passive ⮫쪮 ¯® ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®áâ¨! ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ­¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ¨ ª« áá¨ç¥áª®¥ 㪠§ ­¨¥ ¥à­ ठ˜®ã:
\The golden rule is that there are no golden rules."

ƒ« ¢ 24
Š ª ¯à¥¢à â¨âì
£¥àã­¤¨©-¤«ï-ᥡï
¢ £¥àã­¤¨©-¢-ᥡ¥?
ƒ¥àã­¤¨© | gerund | íâ® ¢¥áì¬ à á¯à®áâà ­¥­­ ï ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï, ª ª®â®à®© «î¡ï⠯ਡ¥£ âì í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª¨. Š ᮦ «¥­¨î, ­¥ª®â®à묨 ¨§ ­¨å ®­ ç áâ® ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥âáï á £àã¡ë¬¨
®è¨¡ª ¬¨.
®¯ë⪨ à §®¡à âìáï ¢ ®á®¡¥­­®áâïå 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï £¥àã­¤¨ï
¨­®£¤ ¢ë§ë¢ îâ ï¢­ë¥ ­¥¤®ã¬¥­¨ï ¨ ®§ ¡®ç¥­­®áâì. ’à㤭®áâ¨
á¢ï§ ­ë 㦥 á á ¬¨¬ â¥à¬¨­®¬. ’ ª, ¢ £à ¬¬ ⨪¥ . Š¢¥àª ¨ ¤à.
®­ ¢®¢á¥ ®âáãâáâ¢ã¥â (¥£® ­ «®£ | nominal ing-clause). ‘«®¢ àì
•®à­¡¨ ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥â £¥àã­¤¨© ª ª verbal noun. €­ «®£¨ç­® ¯®áâ㯠¥â ¨ ‹®­£¬ ­. ˆ­®£¤ ¯à® £¥àã­¤¨© ¯¨èãâ:
\A term in traditional grammar designating the -ING-form of a verb
used as a noun."
‚®â ¥é¥ ¢ ਠ­â:
\The gerund is a word ending in -ing that behaves in some ways
like a noun and in some ways like a verb."
“ç¥­ë¥ ¯à¨¢ëª«¨ ª ¥áâ¥á⢥­­®© ᮯ®¤ç¨­¥­­®á⨠®¡é¥£® ¨ ç áâ­®£®. „«ï ­¨å, ᪠¦¥¬, ¢ë¯ãª« ï äã­ªæ¨ï | ¯à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£® äã­ªæ¨ï. €­ «®£¨ç­®, ¯®­ï⨥ verbal noun ¥áâ¥á⢥­­® ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ ¥âáï
ª ª à §­®¢¨¤­®áâì noun. Œ¥¦¤ã ⥬ â ª®© ¯®¤å®¤ ª £¥àã­¤¨î çॢ ⠮訡ª ¬¨. à ¢¨« ¯®ï¢«¥­¨ï £¥àã­¤¨ï ¢ ¢¥à­® ¯®áâ஥­­®¬

ƒ«. 24. Gerund

85

¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ­¥ ïîâáï á¯¥æ¨ «¨§ 樥© ®¡é¨å ¤«ï noun ¤¨à¥ªâ¨¢.  ç­¥¬ á ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ëå ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ãâ®ç­¥­¨©.
„«ï ‚ á, í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª, ¯® ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­¨î £¥àã­¤¨©¤«ï-á¥¡ï ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â ᮡ®© ing-ä®à¬ã £« £®« ¢¬¥áâ¥ á ‚ 訬 ¦¥« ­¨¥¬ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¥¥ ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®. ƒ¥àã­¤¨©-¢á¥¡¥ (gerund-per-se, gerund-an-sich, £¥àã­¤¨©-¤«ï-¤àã£¨å ¨«¨ ¯à®áâ®
gerund) | íâ® â ¦¥ ing-ä®à¬ , 㯮âॡ«ï¥¬ ï £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨ ª®à४⭮ ¨ ®¤­®¢à¥¬¥­­® ¢ ¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­® ¢®§¬®¦­®© á⥯¥­¨ ॠ«¨§ãîé ï ¨á室­ë¥ ãáâ६«¥­¨ï. (Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ing-ä®à¬®© ®¡« ¤ îâ
¢á¥ £« £®«ë, ªà®¬¥ ¬®¤ «ì­ëå.)
ˆ¤¥ «ì­®¥ ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­¨¥ ®¡ ing-ä®à¬¥, ᢮¡®¤­® ¯à¥¢à 饭­®©
¢ noun, ¨­®£¤ 㦥 ॠ«¨§®¢ ­® ¤®«£®© ¯à ªâ¨ª®© à §¢¨â¨ï ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª .  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¯à¨®¡à¥«¨ áâ âãá common noun á«®¢ beginning, covering, embedding, ending, mapping. ®«¥¥ ⮣®, ⥮à¥â¨ç¥áª¨
«î¡ãî ýç¨áâãîþ ing-ä®à¬ã ¬®¦­® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ª ª ý®â£« £®«ì­®¥þ
áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥, á­ ¡¦ ï ¥¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë¬ ¨«¨ ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë¬ à⨪«¥¬ ᯥ।¨ (¨ ç áâ® ¤«ï ®á®¡®© ­ ¤¥¦­®á⨠¯®¬¥é ï ᧠¤¨ ä®à¬ã of-genitive; ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, an introducing of new symbols; the solving of
equations, etc.). Ž¤­ ª® ¨¬¥­­® §¤¥áì ­ã¦­® ¯à®ï¢«ïâì ®á®¡ãî ¡¤¨â¥«ì­®áâì ¨ ®áâ®à®¦­®áâì, ¨á¯®«ì§ãï ¡®«¥¥ ¯à®áâë¥ ¨ ç¥âª¨¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ (⨯ introducing new symbols, solving equations, etc.). ¥
á«¥¤ã¥â § ¡ë¢ âì ® ­ «¨ç¨¨ ­¥£¥àã­¤¨ «ì­ëå ®â£« £®«ì­ëå áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå (an introduction of new symbols, the solution of equations,
etc.), ª®â®àë¥ ¨­®£¤ â®ç­¥¥ ¢ëà §ï⠂ èã ¬ëá«ì ¨ ¯® ä®à¬¥ ¡®«¥¥
¤¥ª¢ â­ë ã§ãáã ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª .
Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ing-ä®à¬ë 㦥 ¯à¥¢à ⨫¨áì ¢ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥: assuming, surprising, dashing, underlying, etc. — áâì
ing-ä®à¬ á«ã¦¨â ¯à¥¤«®£ ¬¨ ¨ á®î§ ¬¨, ¨å ­ ¬ 㦥 ¤®¢¥«®áì ®¡á㦤 âì. Œ®à «ì: ¤«ï ­ ç « ¯®á¬®âà¨â¥ ¢ ‚ è á«®¢ àì | ¬®¦¥â
áâ âìáï, ¦¥« ­­ë© £¥àã­¤¨©-¤«ï-ᥡï 㦥 áâ « áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬.
᫨ â ª | çâ® ¦, ‚ ¬ ¯®¢¥§«®.  ¡®â ©â¥ á ‚ 襩 ä®à¬®© ª ª
á common noun.
Š ᮦ «¥­¨î, ­¥ ¢á¥ ᬥ«ë¥ ¬¥çâë á¡ë¢ îâáï ¨ ­¥ ¢á¥ áâà áâ­ë¥ ¦¥« ­¨ï ¬®£ãâ ¡ëâì 㤮¢«¥â¢®à¥­ë (¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, ed-ä®à¬ ¯®ç⨠­¨ª®£¤ ¯àאַ ­¥ ¯à¥¢à é ¥âáï ¢ noun). Ž¡ëç­® gerund, ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî騩 ¨¬¥î饬ãáï 㠂 á £¥àã­¤¨î-¤«ï-ᥡï, ®¡« ¤ ¥â «¨èì
­¥ª®â®à묨 ç¥àâ ¬¨ ­ áâ®ï饣® áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®. à ¢¤ , ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¨§¢¥áâ­®© ª®¬¯¥­á 樨 â ª®© gerund ¯®«ì§ã¥âáï à冷¬ 㤮¡-

86

ƒ«. 24. Gerund

­ëå ¯à¨¢¨«¥£¨©, ¯à¥¤®áâ ¢«ï¥¬ëå £« £®« ¬. ‘ä®à¬ã«¨à㥬 ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî騥 â®ç­ë¥ ¯à ¢¨« .
ƒ¥àã­¤¨î à §à¥è¥­®:
(1) ¨¬¥âì ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ (¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á ä®à¬ ¬¨ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï
£« £®« -த¨â¥«ï);
(2) ¯à®¨á室¨âì ¨ ®â prepositional verbs, ¨ ®â phrasal verbs;
(3) ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ âìáï ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¬¨;
(4) á«ã¦¨âì ®¡ê¥ªâ­ë¬ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ ¨«¨ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ ª ¯®¤«¥¦ 饬㠢 à §à¥è¥­­ëå ä®à¬ å £« £®«ì­ëå ã¯à ¢«¥­¨©
(®¡ëç­® [L] ¨ [Tg]);
(5) ¡ëâì ¯®¤«¥¦ 騬 (¢ ä®à¬¥ [S]);
(6) ¢ëáâ㯠âì ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¯à¥¤«®¦­®£® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï;
(7) ¤®¯ã᪠âì premodi cation á ¯®¬®éìî (personal) possessives.
¥à¢ë¥ âਠ¯ã­ªâ à §êïá­ïîâ á¬ëá« ¯®¤å®¤ . Š¢¥àª ¨ ¤à.
| ¢ ­¨å 㪠§ ­ë áâ ­¤ àâ­ë¥ ᢮©á⢠ing-participle clause. ®á«¥¤­¨¥ ¦¥ âਠ¯à¨§­ ª £¥àã­¤¨© § ¨¬áâ¢ã¥â ¨§ ᢮¥£® ¨¤¥ « |
®¡ëç­®£® áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮£®. ‘¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå ãâ®ç­¥­¨© § á«ã¦¨¢ ¥â
¯ã­ªâ (4). ‚ ä®à¬¥ [Tg], ª ª ®â¬¥ç «®áì, ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ á«ã¦¨â ingparticiple clause. ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨, ­¨ª ª¨å possessives §¤¥áì, ¢®®¡é¥ £®¢®àï, ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠¥âáï. ˆá¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ possessives à §à¥è¥­® ¢¢¥¤¥­¨¥¬
ᨬ¢®« (') ¢ ª«¥âª¥ á⮫¡æ [Tg] | íâ® ä®à¬ [Tsg]. ’ ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬,
£« £®« ¢ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¨ [Tsg] ¨¬¥¥â ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï £¥àã­¤¨©.
‚ ਠ­â [Tng] (= [T]+[n]+[g]), £¤¥ [n] ᨬ¢®«¨§¨àã¥â ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥
¢® ¢¢®¤¨¬®¬ ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï ing-participle clause, ®¡®§­ ç ¥âáï ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥¬ ( ) ¢ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饩 ª«¥âª¥ á⮫¡æ [Tg] â ¡«¨æë
Verb Patterns. à¨ í⮬ ¢ [n] ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï ­¥ possessive, ®¡ëç­ë¥ ®¡ê¥ªâ­ë¥ ä®à¬ë: objective (accusative) case ¤«ï ¬¥á⮨¬¥­¨©:
me/us/him/her/it/you/them. Š ª ®¡ëç­®, ®âáãâá⢨¥ + ¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨ ( ) ¨«¨ (') ®§­ ç ¥â, çâ® ¢ ਠ­â [Tsg], áâண® £®¢®àï, à §à¥è ¥â
[Tng]. ‚ ¦­ ï â®­ª®áâì á®á⮨⠢ ⮬, çâ® [Tng] ¨­®£¤ à áᬠâਢ îâ ª ª ¨á¯®à祭­ãî ä®à¬ã [Tsg], ¯à¨¬¥­ïï ¤«ï [Tng] â¥à¬¨­
fused participle construction.  áâ®ïéãî £¥àã­¤¨ «ì­ãî ª®­áâàãªæ¨î (¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨ «ìâ¥à­ ⨢ë) ¯à¨­ïâ® áç¨â âì ¡®«¥¥ ¯®¤å®¤ï饩 ¤«ï ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ⥪á⮢, 祬 ä®à¬ã á fused participle. ‚¥à®ïâ­®, ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ãç¨âë¢ âì íâ® ¬­¥­¨¥. ‚ á«ãç ïå ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï
pronouns ¨«¨ proper nouns ª®­áâàãªæ¨î fused participle ‚ ¬ 㯮âॡ«ïâì ¡¥§ãá«®¢­® ­¥ ­ã¦­®. ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ¯à¨ ¬ «¥©è¨å ᮬ­¥­¨ïå

ƒ«. 24. Gerund

87

¤¥©áâ¢ã©â¥ á ®¡ëç­®© à §ã¬­®© ®á¬®âà¨â¥«ì­®áâìî | ¯¥à¥áâனâ¥
‚ è¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ¢ ª ª®©-«¨¡® ¡¥áᯮ୮ ª®à४â­ë© ¢ ਠ­â.
Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® á।¨ ¯à¥¤«®£®¢, ª®â®àë¥ ®á®¡¥­­® «î¡ï⠯।è¥á⢮¢ âì ing-ä®à¬ ¬, ­ 室ïâáï without, by, instead of, before, after, on, in, through, from, for fear of, for the sake of, on the verge
of, except for, as for. à®ç¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®£¨ ¢¢®¤ïâ £¥àã­¤¨© ०¥, å®âï
¢ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ \the ing-form is used after all prepositions" (M. Swan). ¥
á«¥¤ã¥â, ¢ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï, § ¡ë¢ âì, çâ® £¥àã­¤¨© ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â ᮡ®©
clause, clause âॡã¥â ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥. ® 㬮«ç ­¨î ®âáãâáâ¢ãî饥
¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ¥áâì ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ®á­®¢­®£® £« £®« ¨«¨, ­ ªà ©­¨©
á«ãç ©, ¢â®à᪮¥ we.
Œ­®£¨¥ £¥àã­¤¨¨ ¤®¯®«­ïîâ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥ ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦­®©
ä®à¬¥ á of. Š â ª¨¬ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬ ®â­®áïâáï, ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, action, advantage, aim, complication, case, choice, conception, diculty,
fact, idea, importance, intention, instance, job, labor, manner, means,
method, mistake, necessity, notion, opportunity, point, possibility, proof,
sense, task, use, way, etc.
— áâ® £¥àã­¤¨© ¢¢®¤¨âáï ª ª ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ ª áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¬ã
¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦­®¬ ®¡®à®â¥ á for, in, at, about, to. ‚ íâ¨å á«ãç ïå £¥àã­¤¨ «ì­ë© ®¡®à®â ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ ®¡ï§ ⥫¥­ (­ ¯à¨¬¥à, reason for,
diculty in, attempt at, fantasy about, objection to). Ž¡ í⮬ á¬. â ª¦¥ £«. 30.
Œ­®£¨¥ £¥àã­¤¨ «ì­ë¥ ®¡®à®âë ¯à¥¤¢ ७ë á®î§ ¬¨ (¨ á«ã¦ â
adverbials). ‘¯®á®¡­®áâì á®î§ ¢¢®¤¨âì £¥àã­¤¨© «¥ªá¨ç¥áª¨ ­¥§ ¢¨á¨¬ (®â á¬ëá« £¥àã­¤¨ï). Š á®î§ ¬, ᪫®­­ë¬ ª £¥àã­¤¨î,
®â­®áïâáï while, when, once, if, as though, than, ¨ correlative conjunctions: as ... as, so ... as. Žâ¬¥âì⥠¢ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ®¡®à®âë It is worth
+ gerund ¨ It is worth while + to in nitive clause. ˆå ¢ ਠ­âë It is
worth while + gerund ¨ It is worth my while + [t]. ˆ§ ⮩ ¦¥ á¥à¨¨
®¡®à®âë It is hard/easy to do A ¨ It is hard/easy doing A .
à¨¢¥¤¥¬ ­¥áª®«ìª® ¨áªãáá⢥­­ëå ¯à¨¬¥à®¢ ¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨ï gerund.
Assuming the Parallelogram Law implies that we are in a Hilbert
space setting.
Putting up with inconsistencies suggests miscalculating.
Extracting roots is a tool for solving the most striking equations.
On persistently proving that 1 = 1, we are necessitating his conjecturing that A = A and B = B by their being speci ed properly.

88

ƒ«. 24. Gerund

â¨ ®¡à §æë £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨ ¢¥à­ë, å®âï á â®çª¨ §à¥­¨ï á⨫ï ®
­¥¡¥§ã¯à¥ç­ë. Š®­¥ç­®, ॠ«ì­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ‚ ¬ ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â § £à®¬®¦¤ âì ing-ä®à¬ ¬¨ | ¯®¢â®àë ¢á¥£¤ ­¥¦¥« ⥫ì­ë. Ž¡à â¨â¥
¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ setting | íâ® ®¡ëç­®¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫쭮¥; ᮮ⢥âá⢥­­®
á«®¢® striking á«ã¦¨â ­®à¬ «ì­ë¬ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬, necessitating
á¢ï§ ­® á the Progressive.
ƒ¥àã­¤¨î § ¯à¥é¥­®:
(1) ¨¬¥âì ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«®;
(2) ®¡à §®¢ë¢ âì possessive (¡ëâì in the genitive case);
(3) á«ã¦¨âì âਡã⨢­® (ª ª ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮¥ ¢ á«ãç ¥ premodi cation ­¥ª®â®àëå áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå);
(4) ¯à¨­¨¬ âì «î¡ë¥ (­¥¯ãáâë¥) ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¨, ªà®¬¥ possessives;
(5) ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ âìáï ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬¨ ¨«¨ á ¯®¬®éìî of, ¨«¨
á ¯®¬®éìî relative which/that ª®­áâàãªæ¨© ¨ â. ¯.
à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ¯à ¢¨« ¯®¬®£ã⠂ ¬ ª®à४⭮ ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì gerund |
ý¯à¥¢à â¨âì £¥àã­¤¨©-¤«ï-á¥¡ï ¢ £¥àã­¤¨©-¢-ᥡ¥þ. ¥à¥ç¥­ì à §à¥è¥­¨© ᮧ¤ ¥â ¨§¢¥áâ­ãî ᢮¡®¤ã ¨, §­ ç¨â, å®âï ¡ë ®âç á⨠à áè¨àï¥â ‚ è¨ ¢®§¬®¦­®á⨠(­ ¯à¨¬¥à, ¤®¯ãáâ¨¬ë¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ⨯
\Being integrated allows for di erentiability" ®¡¥á¯¥ç¨¢ îâ ᯥæ¨ä¨ç¥áªãî, ­® ॠ«ì­ãî ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ¯à¥¢à 饭¨ï ed-participles ¢ ýª ª
¡ëþ nouns). ‘¯¨á®ª § ¯à¥é¥­¨© ­®á¨â ¡á®«îâ­ë© ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ î騩
å à ªâ¥à.  àã襭¨ï áä®à¬ã«¨à®¢ ­­ëå ­®à¬ ¢¥¤ãâ ª ᮫¥æ¨§¬ ¬.
‚®â ®¡ëç­ë¥ ¨§ ­¨å: directly solving of equations; the integrating by
parts; immediately di erentiatings; by the applying (5.2); truncating
that described above; etc. ˆ§¡¥£ ©â¥ ¯®¤®¡­ëå ®è¨¡®ª.
ƒ¥àã­¤¨© | íâ® ¢¥áì¬ ã¤®¡­ ï ¨ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ ï ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï,
­¥®âꥬ«¥¬ ï ç áâì ‚ 襣® à ¡®ç¥£® ¨­áâà㬥­â à¨ï. ˜¨à®ª®¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ £¥àã­¤¨ï ¢ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ᮢ¥à襭­® ®¯à ¢¤ ­®. Ž¤­ ª® ¯à¨¬¥­ïï ¥£®, ¯®¬­¨â¥ á«¥¤ãî騩 (¯®¤à ¦ î騩
®ä¨æ¨ «ì­®© ४« ¬¥ ‚¥­ë) ¤¥¢¨§.
ƒ¥àã­¤¨©... íâ® ¨­ ç¥.

ƒ« ¢ 25
‚ è¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠âॡãîâ
¢­¨¬ ­¨ï
”㭪樨 ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠(adverbials) ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ®¡ëç­®
¢ë¯®«­ïîâ adverbs ¨«¨ adverb phrases (­ à¥ç¨ï ¨ ­ à¥ç­ë¥ äà §ë),
prepositional phrases (¯à¥¤«®¦­ë¥ äà §ë) ¨ clauses (¯à¨¤ â®ç­ë¥
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï).
®«ìè¨å ¯à®¡«¥¬ á adverbials ¢ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ­ ãç­ëå ¯¥à¥¢®¤ å, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ­¥ ¡ë¢ ¥â; ®¤­ ª® ª®¥-ª ª¨¥ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠­ã¦¤ îâáï ¢ ¯à¨á¬®âà¥. ‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥ ®á­®¢­®¥ ®¡é¥¥ ¯à ¢¨«®:
¥ ¯®¬¥é ©â¥ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¬¥¦¤ã âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë¬ £« £®«®¬ ¨
¥£® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬.
Ž¡ëç­®¥ ¨áª«î祭¨¥ | íâ® á«ãç ©, ¢ ª®â®à®¬ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ á«ã¦¨â 楫®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥. ‚ ª ç¥á⢥ ¨««îáâà 樨 à áᬮâਬ äà §ë:
We prove now without diculties the Spectral Mapping Theorem.
We will establish in this section that the image of a spectrum is also
a spectrum.
‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â, à㪮¢®¤áâ¢ãïáì ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¬ ¢ëè¥ ¯à ¢¨«®¬, ®â¢¥áâ¨
¯¥à¢ãî ª ª ­¥ª®à४â­ãî ¨ ¯¥à¥¤¥« âì ¥¥ ¢ ¤ãå¥
We now prove the Spectral Mapping Theorem without diculties.

90

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

ã¦­® â ª¦¥ ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® ¢ á¨âã 樨, ¢ ª®â®à®© ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮ ¨«¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢥­­ ï äà § ¢ëà ¦¥­ë áãé¥á⢥­­® ¬¥­¥¥
¬­®£®á«®¢­®, 祬 ®¡ê¥ªâ ¤¥©áâ¢¨ï £« £®« , ¢¯®«­¥ ¯à ¢®¬¥à­® à ᯮ«®¦¨âì ¨¬¥î饥áï ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮ ¯¥à¥¤ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬. ’ ª, äà §ã
We prove without diculties the Spectral Mapping Theorem which
will be of use in demonstrating the Gelfand{Namark Theorem.
¬®¦­® á®åà ­¨âì, ¯®¬¥á⨢ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢮ ¢ ¨§®«¨àãî騥 § ¯ïâë¥
(çâ®, ¢¯à®ç¥¬, ­¥ ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮).
‚®â ¥é¥ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ã­¨¢¥àá «ì­ë¥ ४®¬¥­¤ 樨. ‚ ­ ç «¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ­¥ áâ ¢ì⥠(­ ¤¥¦­®áâ¨ à ¤¨) ¡®«¥¥ ®¤­®£® ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠.
‚ ª®­æ¥ ¦¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï (£¤¥ ¨¬ ®¡ëç­® ¨ ¬¥áâ®) à ᯮ« £ ©â¥ ‚ è¨
®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á ¢®¯à®á ¬¨ ýŠ ª? ƒ¤¥? Š®£¤ ?þ.
®¤à®¡­¥¥ £®¢®àï, ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â ¯à ¢¨«®

process → place → time,

â. ¥. á­ ç « ¨¤ãâ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠®¡à § ¤¥©á⢨ï, § ⥬ ¬¥áâ
¨ «¨èì ¯®â®¬ ¢à¥¬¥­¨. ᫨ ¦¥ 㠂 á ­¥áª®«ìª® ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢,
á¢ï§ ­­ëå á ¢à¥¬¥­¥¬, à ᯮ« £ ©â¥ ¨å ¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á ¢®¯à®á ¬¨
ýŠ ª ¤®«£®? Š ª ç áâ®? Š®£¤ ?þ, â. ¥. ¯® á奬¥

duration → frequency → when.

‚ ª ç¥á⢥ ãâ¥è¥­¨ï ®â¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ¢ ãáâ­®© à¥ç¨ ­¥â®ç­®á⨠¢ ¯®à浪¥ à ááâ ­®¢ª¨ ­ à¥ç¨© ¤®¯ã᪠îâ ¤ ¦¥ ¢ë¤ î騥áï ®à â®àë,
­¥ ᫨誮¬ â¥àïï ¯à¨ í⮬ ¢ëà §¨â¥«ì­®áâì.
 ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢® ¬­®£¨¥ æ¨â â­¨ª¨ ¢ª«î祭® á«¥¤ãî饥 ¨§¢¥áâ­®¥
¢ë᪠§ë¢ ­¨¥ „¦. ”. Š¥­­¥¤¨ ® 宫®¤­®© ¢®©­¥:
\If we cannot now end our di erences, at l¥ast we can help make
the world safe for diversity."
” ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ ¦¥, ¢ à¥ç¨ 10 ¨î­ï 1963 £®¤ ¢ €¬¥à¨ª ­áª®¬ ã­¨¢¥àá¨â¥â¥ ‚ 設£â®­ á«®¢® now ¡ë«® ¯à®¨§­¥á¥­® ¯®á«¥ end.
‚ ¯®¤à®¡­ëå à㪮¢®¤áâ¢ å ‚ë ®¡­ àã¦¨â¥ à §¢¥à­ãâãî ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨î adverbials. „«ï í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ­ã¦¤ ‚ ¬ ¤®áâ â®ç­® §­ âì
á ¬ë¥ §ë. ’¨¯ adjunct ®§­ ç ¥â ¢áâ஥­­®áâì ¢ áâàãªâãà㠯।«®¦¥­¨ï; ⨯ë conjunct ¨ disjunct ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ îâ ¬¥­ìèãî á¢ï§ì.
Conjuncts ¯® ஫¨ ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ ¡«¨§ª¨ ª á®î§ ¬ (conjunctions) | ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, rst, after all, further. Disjuncts ᪮॥ à §¤¥«ïî⠯।«®¦¥­¨ï

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

91

(¨¡® ª®¬¬¥­â¨àãîâ ¨å ¢ 楫®¬: seriously, strictly speaking, brie y, of
course, etc.). Š« áá adjuncts ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ ®¡è¨à¥­ | ¯®¬¨¬® ®â¬¥ç¥­­ëå ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠®¡à § ¤¥©á⢨ï, ¬¥áâ ¨ ¢à¥¬¥­¨, â㤠¯®¯ ¤ îâ
emphasizers, ampli ers, downtoners, etc.
®«¥§­® §­ âì, çâ® conjuncts ¨ disjuncts ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå ®¡ëç­®
§ ­¨¬ îâ ­ ç «ì­ãî ¯®§¨æ¨î | initial position, â. ¥. à ᯮ« £ îâáï
¯¥à¥¤ ¯®¤«¥¦ 騬. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¢ ä®à¬¥ adverbial clauses ç é¥
¢á¥£® ¢áâà¥ç îâáï ¢ nal position, â. ¥. à ᯮ«®¦¥­ë ¯®á«¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï. Œ­®£¨¥ ­ à¥ç¨ï ¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¢áâà¥ç îâáï ¢ middle position | ¯¥à¥¤ á¬ëá«®¢ë¬ £« £®«®¬, ­® ¯®á«¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣® ¨ ¯¥à¢®£®
¢á¯®¬®£ ⥫쭮£® £« £®« . ¥ª®â®àë¥ à¥ª®¬¥­¤ 樨 ® ¯à ¢¨«ì­®¬
¢ë¡®à¥ ¯®§¨æ¨¨ ᮤ¥à¦¨â á«¥¤ãîé ï â ¡«¨æ .

Adjunct
sentence quali ers, viewpoint
\how long"(inde nite frequency);
evaluating, focusing, duration
\when"
\how long" (inde nite frequency)
process (manner, means,
instrument); emphasizing
place

Position
Initial Middle Final
+
+
+

+
+

+
+

‚ ¯ áᨢ¨§¨à®¢ ­­ëå (¯®¤¢¥à£­ãâëå Passive Transformation) ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå place adjuncts ç áâ® § ­¨¬ îâ middle position. ˆ­â¥à¥á­®
®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® ¢ middle position ¬®£ãâ ¯®¯ áâì ¨ á«®¢ all, both, each,
­ ¯à¨¬¥à, we have both proven; they are each separated.
¥ § ¡ã¤ìâ¥, çâ® ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¨¤ãâ ¯®á«¥ ä®à¬ be, ¥á«¨ íâ®â
£« £®« ®á­®¢­®©. €­ «®£¨ç­® ®­¨ ¢¥¤ãâ ᥡï á ­¥âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë¬¨
£« £®« ¬¨.

92

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

‚â®à¨ç­® ®¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ â®, çâ® stative verbs ­¨ª®£¤
­¥ ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï á ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¬¨ ⨯ process adjuncts. (”à §
\we satisfy equation (5.1) by integrating both sides" | ®è¨¡®ç­®¥ ýª ª
¡ëþ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥.)
ˆ­â¥à¥á¥­ ¨ ¢ ¦¥­ ¢®¯à®á ® \split in nitive." ƒ®¢®àïâ, ç⮠㯮âॡ«¥­ ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï \split in nitive", ¥á«¨ ­ à¥ç¨¥ ¢áâ ¢«¥­® ¯®á«¥
ç áâ¨æë to ¯¥à¥¤ ¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢®¬ ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à㥬®£® £« £®« .  ¯à¨¬¥à,
We decided to formally begin selecting.
Žâ­®è¥­¨¥ ª \split in nitive" ­¥®¤­®§­ ç­®¥; ä ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ ¯à®¨á室¨â ¯®¤¢¨¦ª á㦤¥­¨©:
Never split in nitives! → Never split in nitives?! →
→ Never (?) split in nitives!
‚®â ®¡à §æë ªà ©­¨å ¯®§¨æ¨©:
\...split in nitives should therefore be avoided in formal writing
whenever possible." (Longman Guide to English Usage)
\When I split an in nitive, goddamnit, I split it so it stays split."
(R. Chandler)
 á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥ ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë, à §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¯à¨¤¥à¦¨¢ âìáï ®¡é¥£® ¯®­¨¬ ­¨ï, çâ® £« ¢­ë© ªà¨â¥à¨© ¢ë¡®à £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª®© ä®à¬ë |
íâ® ç¥âª®áâì ¨ ïá­®áâì á®®¡é¥­¨ï. ‚ ਠ­âë:
We decided formally to begin selecting.
We decided to begin formally selecting.
We decided to begin selecting formally.
¨¬¥îâ ­¥ ⮦¤¥á⢥­­ë¥ ⮫ª®¢ ­¨ï. ‡­ ç¨â, ¥á«¨ ‚ è ¬ëá«ì â®ç­¥¥ ¢á¥£® ¢ëà ¦¥­ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­®© ¢ëè¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¥© \split in nitive"
á \to formally decide", ¨á¯®«ì§ã©â¥ ¥¥ ᬥ«®, ®â¡à®á¨¢ ¤®£¬ â¨ç¥áª¨©
§ ¯à¥â ý­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ࢨ⥠¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢ëþ. ®«¥§­® â ª¦¥ ¨¬¥âì ¢ ¢¨¤ã, çâ® American English ¢ ᢮¥¬ ã§ãᥠ¡®«¥¥ â¥à¯¨¬ ª í⮩ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨, ­¥¦¥«¨ British English. ‚ ç áâ­®áâ¨, N. Lewis ¢ ᢮¥¬ The New
American Dictionary of Good English ®â¬¥ç ¥â: \It is, in short, pedantic to deliberately go out of your way to avoid the split in nitive." Ÿàª®
¢ëà §¨« ᢮© ¯®¤å®¤ ª ¯à®¡«¥¬¥ E. Partridge:
\Avoid the split in nitive whenever possible, but if it is the clearest
and the most natural construction, use it boldly. The angels are on
our side."
‘⮨⠯ਭïâì íâã ª®­áâ â æ¨î.

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

93

Žç¥­ì ç áâ® ä㭪樨 ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¢ë¯®«­ïîâ ®¡ëª­®¢¥­­ë¥
­ à¥ç¨ï (adverbs). Žâ¬¥âì⥠¤«ï á¥¡ï ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ®á®¡¥­­®á⨠¨å 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï.
Adverbs, ª ª ‚ ¬ å®à®è® ¨§¢¥áâ­®, ®¡ëç­® ¢®§­¨ª îâ ¨§ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå ¤®¡ ¢«¥­¨¥¬ -ly. ’ ª®© ¯à®æ¥áá, ¯à¨¬¥­¥­­ë© ª ­¥ª®â®àë¬ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¬, ¤ ¥â ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥.  í⮬ ¯ãâ¨ á ¯®¬®éìî ¯®¢â®à®¢ ¢®§­¨ª îâ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ ­ -lily (­ ¯à¨¬¥à, scholar |
scholarly | scholarlily).  §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¨å á«¥¤ã¥â ¨§¡¥£ âì. é¥ ®¤­
â®­ª®áâì | adverbs ¬®£ãâ á«ã¦¨âì ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ ¬®¤¨ä¨ª â®à®¢ (modiers), ¨§¬¥­ïï §­ 祭¨¥ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå, áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå ¨ ¢ ­¥ª®â®àëå ¤à㣨å á«ãç ïå. „«ï £ à ­â¨¨ ¨áª«îç¨â¥ ᮢ¬¥áâ­®¥ (¯®á«¥¤®¢ ⥫쭮¥) ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ¤¢ãå ly-á«®¢, ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨àãîé¨å ¤à㣠¤à㣠.
®¤®¡­ë¥ á®ç¥â ­¨ï ¤®«¦­ë ®¯à ¢¤ë¢ âìáï ¡á®«îâ­®© ­¥¨§¡¥¦­®áâìî, ª ª, ᪠¦¥¬, ¢ weakly sequentially compact sets. (‡¤¥áì weakly
¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨àã¥â ­¥ sequentially, sequentially compact.) Žá®¡® ®â¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® ­£«¨©áª¨¥ adverbs ¯® ¡®«ì襩 ç á⨠­¥ ¬®£ãâ ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ âì prepositional phrases and noun phrases. ‡ ª®­­ë¥ \irrespectively of" ¨ \independently of" (à áᬠâਢ ¥¬ë¥ ç áâ® ¨ ª ª á®áâ ¢­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®£¨) á«ã¦ â ।ª¨¬¨ ¨áª«î祭¨ï¬¨, ­¥ ¤ ¢ ï ®á­®¢ ­¨©
¤«ï ®¡®¡é¥­¨© ¢ á⨫¥ \parallelly to something" ¨«¨ \analogously to
something." ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ­¥«ì§ï ­¥ § ¬¥â¨âì ¢ ᪮¡ª å, çâ® â ª®© ¢ë¤ î騩áï ¢â®à¨â¥â, ª ª H. Fowler ¢¯®«­¥ àã⨭­® ª¢ «¨ä¨æ¨àã¥â
\similarly to" ª ª prepositional adverb, íª¢¨¢ «¥­â­ë© like.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® also, as well, too ­¥«ì§ï ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¢ ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå. (Šáâ â¨, also ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â 㯮âॡ«ïâì
¯® ®â­®è¥­¨î ª ¯®¤«¥¦ 饬㠨«¨ à §¬¥é âì ¢ ª®­æ¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.) Š ç¨á«ã ¯à¨§­ ª®¢ ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨© (¯®¬¨¬® ®ç¥¢¨¤­ëå) ®â­®á¨âáï â ª¦¥ ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ®¤­®£® ¨§ á«®¢ seldom, rarely,
scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few, and only. Žá®¡® ®â¬¥âì⥠enough
¢ ª ç¥á⢥ adverb. â® á«®¢® ¢á¥£¤ ¨¤¥â ¯®á«¥ adjectives, adverbs
¨ verbs (¨ ¯¥à¥¤ nouns). ‚ ¬ ¯®«¥§­ë â ª¦¥ ®¡®à®âë ⨯ : ...enough
for integrals to be bounded ...; ...enough for maps for factoring through
... . ‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥ â ª¦¥, çâ® enough ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥¬ ä®à¬ë
£« £®« be ⮫쪮 ¥á«¨ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­® pronoun.
é¥ ¯®«¥§­ ï ‚ ¬ ¤¥â «ì: certainly ¢ëà ¦ ¥â §­ ­¨¥, ­ à¥ç¨¥
surely á¢ï§ ­® á 㤨¢«¥­¨¥¬, ¢¥à®© ¨«¨ ­¥¤®¢¥à¨¥¬ (¨, §­ ç¨â, ¨¬¥¥â
¬¥­ì訥 ®á­®¢ ­¨ï ¤«ï ¯®ï¢«¥­¨ï ¢ ­ ãç­®¬ ⥪áâ¥). Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ®
­ à¥ç¨¥ else 㯮âॡ«ïîâ ⮫쪮 á ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë¬¨ (¢®¯à®á¨â¥«ì-

94

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

­ë¬¨ ¨«¨ ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ë¬¨) ¬¥á⮨¬¥­¨ï¬¨ ¨ ­ à¥ç¨ï¬¨. ‚ ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ⥪áâ å â ª¦¥ ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ®¡®à®â or else.
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® ¯®á«¥ ­ à¥ç­ëå ®¡®à®â®¢ ¬¥áâ ¢®§¬®¦­ ¨ ç áâ® ¯à¨­ïâ (¨ ¤ ¦¥ ®¡ï§ â¥«ì­ ) ¨­¢¥àá¨ï | ᪠§ã¥¬®¥,
¢ëà ¦¥­­®¥ ®¡ëç­® ­¥âà ­§¨â¨¢­ë¬ £« £®«®¬, ¯à¥¤è¥áâ¢ã¥â ¯®¤«¥¦ 饬ã.  ¯à¨¬¥à,
In the last section appears the main theorem.
Here follows the basic lemma.
There hold the next equalities.
 §ã¬¥¥âáï, í⨠¨­¢¥àᨨ ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯ãâ âì á existential sentences
(⨯ there is/are ...). ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ¢á¥ ¦¥ ४®¬¥­¤ æ¨î ­¨ª®£¤
­¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì í¬ä â¨ç¥áªãî ¨­¢¥àá¨î ¨ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨¥ \never say
never again"! Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ â ª¦¥ ­ ¨­¢¥àá¨î ¯®á«¥ neither,
nor ¨ so ⨯
Since A and B are commutative, so is C .
A does not imply B , neither does C .
A is not invertible, nor is A 2 .
ˆ««îáâà¨à®¢ ­­®¥ ¯®áâ஥­¨¥ äà § ¢ ¯®¤®¡­ëå á«ãç ïå ï¥âáï
®¡ï§ ⥫ì­ë¬.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ¯à¨ ¢®§¬®¦­®á⨠¢ë¡®à ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ®áâ ­®¢¨âìáï ­ ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ¢ ਠ­â å ­ ¯¨á ­¨©. ’ ª, until ¯à¥¤¯®çâ¨â¥«ì­¥¥ till (áà. upon ¨ on ¨«¨ although ¨ though).
“ á«®¢ besides ¨­®£¤ ®â¬¥ç î⠯ਧ­ ª¨ hasty afterthought,
¬ «®ã¬¥áâ­ë¥ ¢ áâண®© ­ ãç­®© «¨â¥à âãà¥. ¥©âà «ì­ë¥ íª¢¨¢ «¥­âë (in addition, moreover, furthermore) ᬮâàïâáï «ãçè¥.
“çâ¨â¥ ¢ ¦­ë¥ â®­ª®á⨠¢ 㯮âॡ«¥­¨¨ ­ à¥ç¨© much ¨ very.
‘«®¢® very ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨àã¥â £« £®«ë ¢ ®â«¨ç¨¥ ®â much
(ª®â®àë© ª ª ¨ ¢ ä㭪樨 determiner ®á®¡¥­­® «î¡¨â ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ë¥
£« £®«ë).
‚ í⮩ á¢ï§¨ very ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â 㯮âॡ«ïâì ¤«ï ¨§¬¥­¥­¨ï participles, ª®£¤ ¯®á«¥¤­¨¥ ® ­¥áãâ á«¥¤ë ᢮¨å ä㭪権 (¢ë§ë¢ îâ
§ âà㤭¥­¨ï ®¡ëç­® ed-participles). ’ ª, ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬ äà § \The
conjecture is very substantiated (by the foregoing argument)."
à¨áãâá⢨¥ Passive (á ¢ëà ¦¥­¨¥¬ ® ¨«¨ ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥¬ë¬
by) | ï¢­ë© á¢¨¤¥â¥«ì £« £®«ì­ëå ä㭪権 ¨ ¯®â®¬ã very ¡«®ª¨àã¥âáï. Ž¡ëç­ë© ¢ ਠ­â ¨á¯à ¢«¥­¨ï | § ¬¥­ very ­ very much.

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

95

‚®®¡é¥ ¯®«¥§­® ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® ä㭪樨 á«®¢ very ¨ much ¢ ­¥ª®â®à®¬ á¬ëá«¥ ¢§ ¨¬®¤®¯®«­¨â¥«ì­ë. ‘ª ¦¥¬, very ­¥«ì§ï 㯮âॡ«ïâì á ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¬¨, ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥¬ë¬¨ ⮫쪮 ¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­® (⨯
alike, aloof, etc.), â ª¦¥ á ä®à¬®© comparative (very ¨ more ­¥ á®ç¥â îâáï). â®â ¤¥ä¥ªâ ¢ë¯à ¢«ï¥â á«®¢® much | ¥£® ¯à¨­¨¬ îâ
comparatives ¨ ¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­ë¥ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ë¥.
‚ ¯®£à ­¨ç­ëå á«ãç ïå, ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, ¯¥à¥¤ participles, ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥¬ëå âਡã⨢­® (involved derivation | â®­ª¨© ¢ë¢®¤; hair-splitting
distinction | â®­ª®¥ à §«¨ç¨¥ ¨ â. ¯.), ¤®¯ãá⨬® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¨ very,
¨ much (¨ ¤ ¦¥ very much). ’ ª çâ® ®¡« áâì ¤¥©á⢨ï much, áâண®
£®¢®àï, çãâì è¨à¥, 祬 ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ ª very (¢®â ¥é¥ ¢ ¦­®¥ ᢨ¤¥â¥«ìá⢮ í⮬ã: superlatives ¬®¦­® ¬®¤¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ âì ª ª very, â ª
¨ much).
„«ï í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å ­ã¦¤ ⢥म ã᢮©â¥
MINICOURSE
ýVERY{MUCHþ ¢ ¯à¨¬¥à å
(1) very attributive; (2) much predicated;
(3) Doubt is very much allowed.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ­ àï¤ã á much ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï far ¨ by far.  à¥ç¨¥ far ®¡ëç­® ¯à¥¤è¥áâ¢ã¥â comparative adjectives and adverbs
(¨ ¡«¨§ª® ¯® á¬ëá«ã ª very much); ­ ¯à¨¬¥à, a far better solution;
far too little opportunity, etc. Ž¡®à®â by far (®§­ ç î騩 ¯à¨¬¥à­® by a great amount) «¨¡® á«¥¤ã¥â § comparative/superlative adjectives/adverbs, «¨¡® ¯à¥¤è¥áâ¢ã¥â ¯®¤®¡­ë¬ áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­ë¬ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï¬, ¯à¥¤¢ ७­ë¬ à⨪«ï¬¨ a/an/the. ‚®â ®¡à §æë:
by far the most interesting result;
it transpires faster by far to involve bisecting;
this is by far a deeper thought.
 ª®­¥æ, ®¡à â¨â¥ ‚ è¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ â®, çâ® àï¤ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠¢à¥¬¥­¨ ¨ ¬¥áâ ¬®£ãâ á«ã¦¨âì ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï¬¨ ª ¯à¥¤«®£ ¬. Ž¡à §-

96

ƒ«. 25. Ž¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢

æë á奬 â ª®£® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï time adverbs ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë ¢ â ¡«¨æ¥
(ᨬ¢®« + ¢ ᥢ¥à®-§ ¯ ¤­®¬ 㣫㠮§­ ç ¥â ¯à¨¬¥­¨¬®áâì ª®­áâàãªæ¨© ⨯ since lately, since recently¨ â. ¯.).

Adverb
Preposition lately

then
now after(wards) always
recently today tomorrow
later
ever
yesterday tonight
once

since

+

+

till
until
after
before
by, from

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

for

+

+

+

‚ í⮩ ¦¥ á¢ï§¨ ã᢮©â¥ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï (¨ ¯à¨­æ¨¯ë ¨å ¯®áâ஥­¨ï):
almost never
hardly ever;
almost nobody
hardly anybody;
almost no exception
hardly any exception.
‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥: ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠áãé¥á⢥­­ë!

ƒ« ¢ 26
\There Are" Secrets
‚ ­ ãç­ëå ⥪áâ å ¨ ®á®¡¥­­® ¢ ¨å ¬ ⥬ ⨧¨à®¢ ­­ëå ç áâïå
è¨à®ª® à á¯à®áâà ­¥­ë å à ªâ¥à­ë¥ ¤«ï ⥮६ áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨ï ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ï: ý­ ©¤ãâáï ¯®«¨­®¬ë fn , ª®íää¨æ¨¥­âë tn ¨ ª®­áâ ­â ε
â ª¨¥, çâ® ...þ, ýáãé¥áâ¢ãîâ «¨­¥©­ë¥ ®¯¥à â®àë A ¨ B , 㤮¢«¥â¢®àïî騥 ãá«®¢¨ï¬ ...þ ¨ â. ¯. Š®­¥ç­®, ‚ë ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨â¥ ¨å, ¨á¯®«ì§ãï
®¡®à®âë ⨯ there is/there are, â. ¥. ª®­áâàãªæ¨î existential sentence. ˆ¬¥îâáï ¢ ¦­ë¥ ®á®¡¥­­®á⨠í⮩ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨, ª®â®àë¥ ‚ë
¤®«¦­ë ¢­¨¬ ⥫쭮 ¯à®¤ã¬ âì ¨ ®á®§­ âì.
à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£®, existential sentences ¤®¯ã᪠î⠯ਬ¥­¥­¨¥ £« £®«®¢ ⮫쪮 ¨§ íª§¨á⥭樮­ «ì­®£® àï¤ . ’®ç­¥¥ £®¢®àï, ä®à¬ã £« £®« \be" ¢ ­¨å ¬®¦­® § ¬¥­ïâì «¨èì ­ £« £®«ë áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨ï,
¯®«®¦¥­¨ï ¨ ¤¢¨¦¥­¨ï (¢ ®á­®¢­®¬ íâ® exist, appear, stand, come,
etc.). ‘«¥¤ãî饥 ¯à¨­æ¨¯¨ «ì­®¥ ¯®«®¦¥­¨¥ á®á⮨⠢ ⮬, çâ®
á ¬ ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨ï ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥â ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­®áâì
ý®â«®¦¥­­®£® ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣®þ (â. ¥. ¯à¨­ïâ® áç¨â âì, çâ® â ª®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ãáâ ­ ¢«¨¢ ¥â ­¥ª®â®à®¥ áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨¥, ¨ ¤ ¦¥ ¥á«¨ १ã«ìâ â ¥¤¨­á⢥­, ¯® ­®à¬ ¬ ­£«¨©áª®£® ã§ãá íâ® ­¥ ¤®«¦­® ¯®¤ç¥àª¨¢ âìáï à⨪«¥¬). ‡­ ç¨â, ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë ¯¨á âì ¢ á⨫¥ á«¥¤ãî饣® ®¡à §æ :
There is a unique element t serving as the least upper bound of A.
¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­ë© à⨪«ì ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì § ¬¥­¥­ §¤¥áì ­ some (çâ®,
ª®­¥ç­®, ¢­®á¨â ¤®¯®«­¨â¥«ì­®¥ ªæ¥­â¨à®¢ ­¨¥).
¥ á⮨⠧ ¡ë¢ âì, çâ® there is/are-ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï ®âà ¦ ¥â ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®áâì ¤«ï ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨© ¢à®¤¥ \A man is in

98

ƒ«. 26. There Is/Are

the corner." . Š¢¥àª ª¢ «¨ä¨æ¨àã¥â íâ® ª¢ §¨ ­£«¨©áª®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ª ª \an improbable sentence." ‚ ᢮¥© ª­¨£¥ The Use of English
®­ ®â¬¥ç ¥â ¤ «¥¥, çâ® ­®¢®¥ ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ®¡ëç­® ®¦¨¤ ¥âáï ¢ ¥£®
¯®á«¥£« £®«ì­®© ç á⨠\and of course everything is new at the outset
of a new discourse."
ˆ¬¥¥âáï â®­ª®áâì ¢ ®ä®à¬«¥­¨¨ ᯨ᪮¢, ¢®§­¨ª îé¨å ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïå áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨ï. ˆ­®£¤ ᮣ« ᮢ ­¨¥ §¤¥áì ¢¥¤¥âáï á ¡«¨¦ ©è¨¬ ª £« £®«ã í«¥¬¥­â®¬ ᯨ᪠. ®¤®¡­ ï ­®à¬ ¢®¢á¥ ®âáãâáâ¢ã¥â ¢ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥, ­® ­¥à¥¤ª ¢ ­£«¨©áª¨å ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå.
( ¯à¨¬¥à, ¯à¨­ïâ® ¯¨á âì \neither he nor I am" ¨«¨ \either I or
he is."  §ã¬¥¥âáï, ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ âé ⥫ì­ë¥ ¢â®àë ¯à¥¤¯®ç¨â îâ çâ®â® ¢ á⨫¥ \Neither he is nor I am.") ˆâ ª, ‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥ ¢áâà¥â¨âì ¢
«¨â¥à âãॠ᫥¤ãî騥 äà §ë:
There exists a vector x, a constant ε, and matrices Bn 's.
There exist matrices Bn 's and a vector x.
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ®á®¡®¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ exists ¢ ¯¥à¢®¬ ¯à¨¬¥à¥. ® í⮬ã
¯®¢®¤ã Longman Guide to English Usage 㪠§ë¢ ¥â:
\When there introduces a list of items of which the rst is singular,
usage is divided: There are/is Bill and the children to consider.
There are is correct, though it may be felt to sound odd before
the singular Bill."
‘®¢à¥¬¥­­ë© ã§ãá ¢á¥ ¦¥ ᪫®­ï¥âáï ª á«¥¤ãîé¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã: ¥á«¨ áªàë⮥, ®â«®¦¥­­®¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ¢ëà ¦¥­® ¬­®¦¥á⢥­­ë¬ ç¨á«®¬, á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ¤®«¦­ãî ä®à¬ã £« £®« .  ¯à¨¬¥à,
There are f and g such that f g = 0 whereas f 6= 0 and g 6= 0.
ˆ­ ç¥ £®¢®àï, á⮨â à㪮¢®¤á⢮¢ âìáï ýª «ìª®©þ á àãá᪮£® ¯à ¢¨« :
\The predicate does not take its number from the rst of a series
of subjects following it though there is some authority for this."
(J. B. Opdycke)
Žâ¬¥â¨¬ â ª¦¥, çâ® B. Garner áâண® 䨪á¨àã¥â ­ «®£¨ç­ãî ᮢ६¥­­ãî ­®à¬ã ¬¥à¨ª ­áª®© à §­®¢¨¤­®á⨠­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª :
\The number of the verb is controlled by whether the subject that
follows the inverted verb is singular or plural."

ƒ«. 26. There Is/Are

99

‚ ¦­® ®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï there is/there are ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥
¢¢®¤¨â ¯®«®¦¨â¥«ì­ãî ing-ä®à¬ã. „®¯ãáâ¨¬ë «¨èì ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ë¥
®¡®à®âë ⨯
There is no denying that the set theoretic stance prevails.
‘ ®¡á㦤 ¥¬ë¬¨ íª§¨áâ¥­æ¨ «ì­ë¬¨ ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï¬¨ ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ᬥ訢 âì ¢­¥è­¥ ¯®å®¦¨¥ ¨­¢¥àᨮ­­ë¥ ®¡®à®âë ⨯
There holds the equation of state (5.2).
At this stage, there is proved the unicity stated.
ˆ­®£¤ ®â¬¥ç ¥âáï, çâ® á«®¢® there §¤¥áì | íâ® ®áâ ⮪ ®â ¯®«­®£® 㪠§ ­¨ï over there. “ª § ­­ë¥ ®¡®à®âë ïîâáï à §­®¢¨¤­®áâﬨ á奬
An adverbial of place + verb + subject.
An adverbial of place + there + verb + subject.
’ ª, ¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á í⨬¨ á奬 ¬¨ ¢¯®«­¥ ª®à४â­ë á«¥¤ãî騥 ¢ ਠ­âë ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©:
In the article [1], there was considered the whole situation.
In the article [1] appears the same obstacle.
‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ‚ ¬ á⮨â 㤥ঠâìáï ®â 㯮âॡ«¥­¨ï ¢ ਠ­â
á there ¨ ᢥá⨠¤® ¬¨­¨¬ã¬ ¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨¥ ¢â®à®£® ¢ ਠ­â . „¥«® ¢ ⮬, çâ® ¯®¤®¡­ë¥ ¯®áâ஥­¨ï ­®á¨â¥«ï¬¨ ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª
¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ îâáï ª ª ¢¥áì¬ â®à¦¥á⢥­­ë¥.
¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨¥ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª¨ ¨á¯ëâë¢ îâ ­¥§¤®à®¢®¥ (­® ®¡êïá­¨¬®¥) ¢«¥ç¥­¨¥ ª ¯®á«¥¤­¥© ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ (¨¡® ®­ ¯®¢â®àï¥â àãá᪨© ®à¨£¨­ «). ®¬­¨â¥, çâ® inversion ­®á¨â ï¢­ë© í¬ä â¨ç¥áª¨©
å à ªâ¥à. ’ ª®¢ ¦¥ ¨ fronting, â. ¥. ­ à®ç¨â®¥ ¯®¬¥é¥­¨¥ á«®¢ ,
®¡ëç­® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï, ­ ¯¥à¢®¥ ¬¥áâ® ¢®¯à¥ª¨ ¯à¨­ï⮬㠯®à浪ã;
­ ¯à¨¬¥à, \A polyhedron we call the convex hull of nitely many points."
—१¬¥à­ ï ¦¥ ¢ëà §¨â¥«ì­®áâì áâண®¬ã ­ ãç­®¬ã ⥪áâã ¯à®áâ®
¯à®â¨¢®¯®ª § ­ . ᫨ ‚ë ­¥ ¬®¦¥â¥ 㤥ঠâìáï ®â ¨­¢¥àᨨ, å®âï ¡ë ᢥ¤¨â¥ ¥¥ ª ¬¨­¨¬ã¬ã. Œ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨© ⥪áâ, ¢ ª®â®à®¬

100

ƒ«. 26. There Is/Are

ª ¦¤ ï ⥮६ áä®à¬ã«¨à®¢ ­ á ¨­¢¥àᨥ©, ­¥ ⮫쪮 㦠ᥭ, ­®
¨ ­¥¯à¨¥¬«¥¬. é¥ ®¤­ ¢ ¦­ ï தá⢥­­ ï ¤¥â «ì: ¢ áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­ëå ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå ⨯ \the sooner A the better B" ¨­¢¥àá¨ï ¤®¯ãá⨬ ⮫쪮 ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ B.
®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ­£«¨©áª¨© ï§ëª ¤®¯ã᪠¥â ¢ë¤¥«ïî騥 ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ | cleft sentence ¨ extraposition, ¢¯®«­¥ 㤮¡­ë¥ ¤«ï ‚ è¨å
­ã¦¤ ¨ ­¥ á¢ï§ ­­ë¥ á ç१¬¥à­ë¬ ªæ¥­â¨à®¢ ­¨¥¬.
‚®â ¯à¨¬¥àë:
It was in [1] that P. Cohen introduced the method of forcing.
It was P. Cohen who introduced the method of forcing in [1].
It was the method of forcing that P. Cohen introduced in [1].
In [1], it was considered how to resolve the problem in question.
We obtain it immediately that A = 0.
As in [1], it is assumed that A holds.
¥ á⮨⠧ ¡ë¢ âì, çâ® ¨ ®¡ëç­®¥ ¡¥áå¨âà®áâ­®¥ ¯®áâ஥­¨¥
äà §ë ¢ á⨫¥
Following [1], we suppose that A holds.
ᮢᥬ ­¥¯«®å®.
 ª®­¥æ, ®â¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® íª§¨áâ¥­æ¨ «ì­ë¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ å®à®è® á®ç¥â îâáï á ®¡®à®â ¬¨ such that/such as, ¨¡® ¯®á«¥¤­¨¥ â ª¦¥
­¥à ¢­®¤ãè­ë ª ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­®áâ¨. ‚®â ®¡à §æë:
There is an algorithm such that you need.
There is such a way that you seek for.
There is a construction such as claimed.
ˆ ª®­¥ç­®,
There are secrets such as to be revealed!

ƒ« ¢ 27
Žâ­®á¨â¥áì ª á«®¦­ë¬
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï¬ á¥à쥧­®
Š ᮦ «¥­¨î, á ¬ë© ­ ¤¥¦­ë© ¤¥¢¨§ ýá«®¦­ë¥ | á®áâ ¢­ë¥ |
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ­¥ ¤«ï ¬¥­ïþ ᮢ¥à襭­® ­¥ ãç¨âë¢ ¥â ॠ«ì­®á⥩.
 ãç­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ­¥¬ë᫨¬ ¡¥§ ¬­®£®ç¨á«¥­­ëå ¢ëà ¦¥­¨© ¢ á⨫¥
\If A, then B."
\Consider A such that B."
\For A to become B it is necessary and sucient that A be B ."
‡¤¥áì ¨ ¢ ¤ «ì­¥©è¥¬ à㪮¯¨á­ë© èà¨äâ ®¡ëç­® ᨬ¢®«¨§¨àã¥â noun phrase, ¢ â® ¢à¥¬ï ª ª ¯®«ã¦¨à­ë© èà¨ä⠢뤥«ï¥â ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
‚ ¯à¥¤ë¤ãé¨å ¯ã­ªâ å ­ ¬ ¤®¢¥«®áì ®¡á㦤 âì ஫¨ ­¥ª®â®àëå
clauses ¢ á«®¦­ëå £« £®«ì­ëå ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ïå; ¬ë ¢¨¤¥«¨ ®á®¡¥­­®áâ¨
®âà ¦¥­¨ï áâàãªâãàë ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¢ ¯à ¢¨« å ¯ã­ªâã 樨 ¨ â. ¯.
Ž¤­ ª® ¬­®£¨¥ ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ë¥ ¢ ¦­ë¥ ¬®¬¥­âë ®áâ «¨áì ­¥ § âà®­ãâ묨. ‘⮨⠢®á¯®«­¨âì ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî騥 ¯à®¡¥«ë.
Œ­®£¨¥ á«®¦­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¢®§­¨ª îâ ¢ १ã«ìâ ⥠coordination ¨«¨ subordination. ãá᪨¥ ­ «®£¨ ýá«®¦­®á®ç¨­¥­­®¥ ¨ á«®¦­®¯®¤ç¨­¥­­®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ïþ ¯ à ««¥«ì­ë, ­® ®â­î¤ì ­¥ ⮦¤¥á⢥­­ë ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¬ ­£«¨©áª¨¬ â¥à¬¨­ ¬.
Coordination ®áãé¥á⢫ï¥âáï á®î§ ¬¨ and, or, but | ¨å ­ §ë¢ îâ (®á­®¢­ë¬¨) ª®®à¤¨­ â®à ¬¨ | coordinators. ®¤ç¥àª­¨â¥, çâ®
á ª®®à¤¨­ â®à ¬¨ á¢ï§ ­ë ãáâ®©ç¨¢ë¥ á®ç¥â ­¨ï and so, but then,

102

ƒ«. 27. ‘«®¦­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï

or else/again. â¨ á®ç¥â ­¨ï ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠îâ ¨§¬¥­¥­¨© (¢ëà ¦¥­¨©
⨯ and then ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë ¨§¡¥£ âì).
ˆ§¢¥áâ­ ï ¢ ਠ⨢­®áâì ¢®§¬®¦­ ¢ á«¥¤ãîé¨å ª®¬¡¨­ æ¨ïå:
and
but

−→

besides
still
yet
nevertheless

é¥ ¤¥â «ì: ¯®á«¥ but ¤®¯ãá⨬® ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, ᮤ¥à¦ 饣® ¢ ª ç¥á⢥ conjunct á«®¢ however ¨«¨ although. Ž¤­ ª®
¬¥¦¤ã but ¨ â ª¨¬ á«®¢®¬ ¤®«¦¥­ ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮 áâ®ïâì ­¥¯ãá⮩ í«¥¬¥­â ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
à®æ¥áá ᮯ®¤ç¨­¥­¨ï ¡®«¥¥ à §­®®¡à §¥­. ‘ãé¥áâ¢ãîâ ¯à®áâë¥ subordinators | á®î§ë after, because, if, since, when, etc., á ª®â®à묨 ¬ë 㦥 ¢áâà¥ç «¨áì, ¨ ­ ª®­¥æ, ᮮ⭮á¨â¥«ì­ë¥ ᮯ®¤ç¨­¨â¥«¨ | correlative subordinators ¢¨¤ if ... then, such ... (that),
etc.
Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, ªáâ ⨠᪠§ âì, ®á®¡¥­­®áâì á®î§ in order that | ¯®á«¥ ­¥£® ¯à¨­ïâ® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì may/might ¨«¨ ¦¥ shall/should (¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨ï can/could ¨ will/would á«¥¤ã¥â ¨§¡¥£ âì). ‘®î§ so that, ¡«¨§ª¨© ¯® á¬ëá«ã ª in order that, ­® ­¥áª®«ìª® ¬¥­¥¥ ä®à¬ «ì­ë©, â ª¨å
®£à ­¨ç¥­¨© ­¥ âॡã¥â.
᫨ ¡ëâì ¡®«¥¥ â®ç­ë¬, â® ­ã¦­® ®â¬¥â¨âì, çâ® á®î§ë in order
that, so that ¨«¨ ¯à®áâ® that ­¥à¥¤ª® ¢¢®¤ï⠯ਤ â®ç­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï 楫¨ ( nal or purposive clauses). ”®à¬ «ì­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«® £« á¨â:
\Final clauses introduced by that take may with the In nitive in present
and future time, might in past time." ‚ ®âà¨æ ⥫ì­ëå purposive
clauses ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ á® á«®¢ ¬¨ that ... not, ¯à¨¬¥­ïï
¯à¥¦­¨¥ ¯à ¢¨« ¯à® £« £®«ë. ‚ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥, ®¡®à®â that ... not ¬¥­¥¥ ¯à¥¤¯®çâ¨â¥«¥­, 祬 lest (¢ ä®à¬ «ì­®¬ ⥪áâ¥). Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, ç⮠ᮮ⭮á¨â¥«ì­ë¥ ᮯ®¤ç¨­¨â¥«¨ ᮤ¥à¦ â ¤¢ í«¥¬¥­â .
Ž¤¨­ ¨§ ­¨å | íâ® á®î§ ¨ ®­ ®â¬¥ç ¥â ¯®¤ç¨­¥­­®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥
(subordinate clause), ¤à㣮© í«¥¬¥­â | ®¡ëç­® ­ à¥ç¨¥ (adverb),
®­ 䨪á¨àã¥â £« ¢­®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ (superordinate clause). ¥ª®â®à®¥ ®á®¡®¥ ¯®«®¦¥­¨¥ ¬¥¦¤ã coordinators ¨ subordinators § ­¨¬ îâ
for (ª ª á®î§, ®§­ ç î騩 ¯à¨¬¥à­®: and the reason is that) ¨ so
(that) (á® §­ 祭¨¥¬ with the result that).
Š®®à¤¨­ â®àë ®âªàë¢ îâ ¯à¨á®¥¤¨­ï¥¬®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥. ‘¢ï§ì

ƒ«. 27. ‘«®¦­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï

103

\A and B" ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¢ëà ¦¥­ ¢ ⥪á⥠¨ â ª: \A. And B."
®¤®¡­ë¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ á á㡮न­ â®à ¬¨ ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬ë.
“ï᭨⥠¤«ï á¥¡ï ®¡é¥¥ ¯à ¢¨«®: ¤«ï ᮥ¤¨­¥­¨ï ¤¢ãå ¯à¥¤-

«®¦¥­¨© ¢ ®¤­® ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬, ¨ ¯à¨â®¬ ¢ â®ç­®á⨠®¤¨­, á®î§.
‘¢¥àïïáì á í⨬ ¯à¨­æ¨¯®¬, ‚ë ®¡­ à㦨â¥, çâ® ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï \If A,
B" ¢®§¬®¦­ . ¥áá®î§­®¥ ᮥ¤¨­¥­¨¥ A ¨ B ¯® á奬¥ \A then B"

¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«® ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠¥â.
Š®­¥ç­®, ¥áâì ᯠᥭ¨¥ á ¯®¬®éìî ¯ã­ªâã 樨 (¨ ®­® ‚ ¬ ¡ë«®
㦥 ¯à¥¤ê¥­®). Œ®¦­® ­ ¯¨á âì \A; B." ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï ­ ¬­®£®
­ ¤¥¦­¥¥ ¨ ý¨¤¨®¬ â¨ç­¥¥þ ¢ë¡à âì ¢ ਠ­â \A. Then B." ˆ¬¥­­®
â ª ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨âì «î¡¨¬®¥ ¬­®£¨¬¨ àãá᪨¬¨ ¬ ⥬ ⨪ ¬¨ ýãáâì ¢ë¯®«­¥­® A . ’®£¤ Bþ. ¨è¨â¥: \Let A hold. Then
B." ‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥: ¬­®£¨¥ ­¥¯à ¢¨«ì­® á®áâ ¢«¥­­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¨
¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨ï comma splice ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ¯¥à¥¢®¤ å ¢ë§¢ ­ë ­¥¢¥à­ë¬
㯮âॡ«¥­¨¥¬ then ¢ ஫¨ á®î§ . ¥ ¤®¯ã᪠©â¥ íâ㠮訡ªã, ¢¥¤ì
then ­¨ª®£¤ á®î§®¬ ­¥ ï¥âáï.
ˆâ ª, ®¡é¨© ¢ë¢®¤: ­ à¥ç¨ï ­¥ ®¡à §ãîâ ­ ¤¥¦­®£® ᮥ¤¨­¥­¨ï
¯à®áâëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨© ¢ á«®¦­ë¥. ‚ è¨ ¢ ਠ­âë: â®çª , § ⥬
­ à¥ç¨¥; á®î§; á®î§ á ­ à¥ç¨¥¬; á®î§ á § ¯ï⮩ ¨«¨ á semicolon ¨ â. ¯.
é¥ ® ýà §..., â®þ. ‚ë 㦥 §­ ¥â¥, çâ® ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï \Since A,
then B" (áà. àãá᪮¥ \®áª®«ìªã A, § ⥬ B") ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬ . (’¥¬ ­¥
¬¥­¥¥ ¢®§¬®¦¥­ ®¡®à®â \A, since then B.") ‚¥à­ë© ¢ ਠ­â \Since
A, B" ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì à áè¨à¥­ ¢ á⨫¥ \Since A; therefore, B."
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ®á®¡®¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ ®¡®à®âë ⨯ as adjective/adverb
as. ’®­ª®áâì ¢ ⮬, çâ® ¢â®à®¥ as ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì á®î§®¬ (¨ §­ ç¨â,
¢ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥ ᯮᮡ­® ¢¢®¤¨âì ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥), ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¯à¥¤«®£®¬ (¨ ¢ í⮬ ª ç¥á⢥ ­¥ ¯à¨­¨¬ âì, ᪠¦¥¬, to-in nitive clause).
 ¯à¨¬¥à,
We intend to nd a solution as much as proving its existence.
We nd as well as approximate solutions.
®¤®¡­ë© íä䥪â ᮯ஢®¦¤ ¥â â ª¦¥ ¯®¯ã«ïà­ë¥ quasi-coordinators: rather/more ... than. Žáâ¥à¥£ ©â¥áì ®è¨¡®ª ⨯
Rather than to compare A and B , we prefer to choose at random.
Š®®à¤¨­¨à®¢ ­­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¢ ᢮¥¬ ¯®¢¥¤¥­¨¨ ­ ¨¡®«¥¥ ᢮¡®¤­ë ¨ ­¥§ ¢¨á¨¬ë. „«ï ­¥ª®®à¤¨­¨à®¢ ­­ëå ᮥ¤¨­¥­¨© ¯®«¥§­®

104

ƒ«. 27. ‘«®¦­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï

¯à ¢¨«®: \One Future Is Enough." ’® ¥áâì ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ (â ¬, £¤¥ á®î§) ¯à¨­ï⮠㯮âॡ«ïâì Present, ¢ £« ¢­®¬ |
Future. ‚®â ¯à¨¬¥àë.
If the rst step of calculations goes through, then we will pass to
the second step.
Provided that the determinant of A is other than zero, the homogeneous equation Ax = 0 will have the sole solution.
In case the matrix A is invertible, the equation Ax = y will momentarily become solvable for all y.
‚¯à®ç¥¬, ¯®á«¥ assume, suppose, hope ¨ ¯®¤®¡­ëå £« £®«®¢ Present
¤®¯ãá⨬® ¨ ¢ £« ¢­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨, ¢ëà ¦ ï â®â ¦¥ ¨áª®¬ë© ᯥªâ ­¥ª®â®à®© ¡ã¤ãé­®áâ¨.
à¨¤ â®ç­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ⨯ that-clauses ¨ wh-clauses ¬®£ãâ
¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ª ª Future, â ª ¨ Present, ­® ¯à ¢¨«® \One Future Is
Enough" ®¡ëç­® ¢á¥ à ¢­® ¤®«¦­® ¡ëâì ᮡ«î¤¥­®. ‚ â® ¦¥ ¢à¥¬ï
\Future Tenses are possible in both clauses if they refer to di erent
future times." (M. Swan)
Žâ¬¥â¨¬, çâ® ¢ á«ãç ¥, ¥á«¨ ¢ £« ¢­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ­ áâ®ï饣® ¢à¥¬¥­¨ ᮤ¥à¦¨âáï ¢ëà ¦¥­¨¥ âॡ®¢ ­¨ï, ãá«®¢¨ï, ¯à¥¤¯®«®¦¥­¨ï, à¥è¥­¨ï ¨ â. ¯. (advise, ask, demand, insist, propose, require,
suggest, wish, etc.), ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ that-clause ¢®§­¨ª ¥â ª®­áâàãªæ¨ï
Present Subjunctive.
It is necessary that X be a complete space.
We require that the embedding operator should be compact.
‚ à §­®¢¨¤­®á⨠American English ¨ ®á®¡¥­­® ¢ ä®à¬ «ì­ëå ⥪áâ å ¯¥à¢ë© ¢ ਠ­â Subjunctive (á ý£®«ë¬þ ¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢®¬) à á¯à®áâà ­¥­ ¢¥áì¬ §­ ç¨â¥«ì­®.  ¢á直© á«ãç © ­ ¯®¬¨­ î ‚ ¬, çâ®
ý¢¨¤¨â ®ª®, ¤ £« § ­¥©¬¥âþ! ‡­ âì ® Present Subjunctive ¯®«¥§­®, ­®
®â ¥£® (¢® ¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥, è¨à®ª®£®) ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨ï ¢ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨å
¯¥à¥¢®¤ å ‚ ¬ á⮨⠢®§¤¥à¦ âìáï.
à ¢¨«ì­ ï à ááâ ­®¢ª ¢à¥¬¥­ ¢ ®á­®¢­®© ¨ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®© ç áâïå ï¥âáï ¢ ¦­ë¬ ¬®¬¥­â®¬ ®à£ ­¨§ 樨 «î¡®£® á«®¦­®á®ç¨­¥­­®£® ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï. ’à㤭®á⨠¨ ®£à ­¨ç¥­¨ï ¢®§­¨ª îâ, ª ª

ƒ«. 27. ‘«®¦­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï

105

¯à ¢¨«®, ¯à¨ ¯®ï¢«¥­¨¨ ¢ £« ¢­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ¢à¥¬¥­, ¨¬¥îé¨å
Past ¢ ᢮¥¬ ­ §¢ ­¨¨. ‚ ®áâ «ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ‚ë ᢮¡®¤­ë ¢ ¢ë¡®à¥
¢à¥¬¥­ (¨§¢¥áâ­ë¥ â®­ª®á⨠®â­®áïâáï ª ãá«®¢­ë¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï¬,
® ª®â®àëå ¯®©¤¥â ®â¤¥«ì­ë© à §£®¢®à ¢ á«¥¤ãî饬 ¯ à £à ä¥).
à¨ ¯®áâ ­®¢ª¥ Past ¢ ®á­®¢­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ¢®§­¨ª ¥â âॡ®¢ ­¨¥ ý¡®«¥¥ £«ã¡®ª®£®þ Past ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨. ˆ­ ç¥
£®¢®àï, ¢áâ㯠¥â ¢ §à¨¬ë¥ ¯à ¢ § ª®­ \Sequence of Tenses." ‚ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á ­¨¬ ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâáï ⮫쪮
¢à¥¬¥­ á Past ¢ ­ §¢ ­¨¨ ¨, ¡®«¥¥ ⮣®, ­ã¦­®¥ ¯® á¬ëá«ã ¢à¥¬ï
§ ¬¥­ï¥âáï ­®¢ë¬ ¢ ᮮ⢥âá⢨¨ á® á奬®©
Present → Past; Past → Perfect; Perfect → Perfect
(¢ ç áâ­®áâ¨, (Simple) Past ¯¥à¥©¤¥â ¢ Past Perfect). Œ ⥬ ⨪ § ¬¥â¨â, çâ® §¤¥áì à¥çì ¨¤¥â ®¡ ®¡ëç­®¬ ®¯¥à â®à¥ ᤢ¨£ .
\Sequence of Tenses" ®è¨¡®ç­® ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ¢ adjectival clauses
(ªáâ ⨠᪠§ âì, ‚ ¬ ­¥ á«¥¤ã¥â ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¢ ­¨å Perfect Participles); ¢ á«ãç ¥, ª®£¤ ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ ®âà ¦¥­ a universal or habitual fact, ¨ ­ ª®­¥æ, ¢ áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­®¬ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ (á®
á«®¢ ¬¨ than, as well as, etc.).
 §ã¬¥¥âáï, ¯® ¯à¨­æ¨¯ã ý«®£¨ª ¢ ¦­¥¥ ä®à¬ëþ ¯à ¢¨«® ᮣ« ᮢ ­¨ï ­ àãè îâ, ¥á«¨ ®âáãâáâ¢ã¥â  ï åà®­®«®£¨ç­®áâì ¯®á«¥¤®¢ ⥫쭮á⨠¤¥©á⢨©.  ¨¡®«¥¥ ç áâ® í⠮ᮡ¥­­®áâì á¢ï§ ­
á £« £®«ì­ë¬¨ ä®à¬ ¬¨ be ¢ ¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨.
à ¢¨«® \Sequence of Tenses" ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â ¨ ¤«ï ¡ã¤ãé¨å ¢à¥¬¥­,
¨ ¯à¨ ¯à¥®¡à §®¢ ­¨¨ ¯àאַ© à¥ç¨ ¢ ª®á¢¥­­ãî. Š ª ¡ë«® ®â¬¥ç¥­®
¢ëè¥, í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®¬ã ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ªã á«¥¤ã¥â ¤¥à¦ âìáï ¯®¤ «ìè¥ ®â
ᮯãâáâ¢ãîé¨å ¯®¤¢®¤­ëå ª ¬­¥©.
‚ è ¤¥¢¨§ ¯à¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ ¢à¥¬¥­¨:
 áâ®ïé ï ¯à®áâ®â | § «®£ ãᯥå !

ƒ« ¢ 28
Š ª ¡ëâì á ý¥á«¨ (¡ë)þ?
Žá®¡®¥ ¬¥áâ® ¢ ­ ãç­ëå ¨, ¯à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£®, ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ¯¥à¥¢®¤ å § ­¨¬ îâ ®¡®à®âë, ¢ëà ¦ î騥 ¨¬¯«¨ª æ¨î A → B (¯®àãá᪨: ¥á«¨ A , â® B ) ¨ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî騥 ¥© ᮯ®¤ç¨­¥­¨ï, ãá«®¢¨ï
¨ «®£¨ç¥áª¨¥ § ¢¨á¨¬®áâ¨. Š®­áâàãªæ¨ï \If A, then B," ¢ª«îç îé ï äà §ã \if A is true, then B is true" | ­£«¨©áª¨© íª¢¨¢ «¥­â A → B , | 㦥 ®¡á㦤 « áì. Š ª ‚ë ­¥á®¬­¥­­® § ¯®¬­¨«¨,
. • «¬®è ४®¬¥­¤ã¥â ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ®¯ã᪠âì §¤¥áì á«®¢® then (á«¥¤®¢ âì í⮬ã ᮢ¥âã «¥£ª® ¨ ¯®«¥§­®).
 áᬮâਬ ⥯¥àì á¢ï§ ­­®¥ á A → B §­ ¬¥­¨â®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®
¢ë¢®¤ modus ponens:
A, A →B
.
B

ˆâ ª, ‚ë 㦥 ¤®ª § «¨ ¨ á®á« «¨áì ¢ ⥪á⥠­ ⥮६ã, £ à ­â¨àãîéãî ¨¬¯«¨ª æ¨î A → B , ¨ å®â¨â¥, ®¯¨à ïáì ­ ¬®¤ãá
¯®­¥­á, § 䨪á¨à®¢ âì ­ «¨ç¨¥ B ¢ á«®¢¥á­®© ä®à¬¥. ‘ ¯®¬®éìî
because ¨ since íâ® ¬®¦­® ¯à®¤¥« âì á«¥¤ãî騬¨ ᯮᮡ ¬¨ (¡ë⮢묨 íª¢¨¢ «¥­â ¬¨ A → B ):
Since A holds, we have B .
We have B because A holds.
Because of A we have B .
We have B because of A .
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® because of | íâ® ¯à¥¤«®£, because |
á®î§, à ¢­® ª ª ¨ since. à¨ í⮬ á®î§ since ®âªàë¢ ¥â á®áâ ¢­®¥
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ (¥£® ¯®¤ç¨­¥­­ãî ç áâì), because (­ 室ïáì, ª®­¥ç­®,

ƒ«. 28. If ... Then

107

⮦¥ ¢ ¯®¤ç¨­¥­­®¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨) á⮨⠯®á«¥ £« ¢­®£® ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï. â® ¢ ¦­®¥ ®¡é¥¥ ¯à ¢¨«®. Because of A | íâ® adverbial
¨ ¯®¤ç¨­ï¥âáï ®¡é¨¬ § ª®­ ¬ à ááâ ­®¢ª¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢. ‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥ â ª¦¥, çâ® á®î§ because ­¥ ¯à¨­ï⮠㯮âॡ«ïâì ¢ ®âà¨æ ⥫쭮¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨. (Œ ⥬ ⨪ ¬, ¯à¨­¨¬ î騬 ¯à¨­æ¨¯ ¨áª«î祭­®£® âà¥â쥣®, íâ® ¯à ¢¨«® ᬥ譮: «î¡®¥ A ¥áâì ®âà¨æ ­¨¥
᢮¥£® ¬A .) ˆ¬¥¥âáï ¢ ¢¨¤ã, ç⮠ᮤ¥à¦ 饥 ý­¥£ ⨢­ë¥þ ¯à¨§­ ª¨ ¢ ®¬ ¢¨¤¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ­¥ ¤®«¦­® á«¥¤®¢ âì § because.
‘ª ¦¥¬, ª®­âà ¯®§¨æ¨¨
Because B is not true we have ¬A .
We have ¬A because B is not true.
| í⮠᮫¥æ¨§¬ë.
à¨¥¬«¥¬ë¥ ¢ ਠ­âë:
¬A holds, for ¬B .
Since ¬B we have ¬A .
(Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, §¤¥áì ¯à®ï¢«ï¥âáï 㯮¬ï­ãâ ï ¢ëè¥ ®á®¡ ï ¯à¨à®¤ for.) ®¤ç¥àª­¨â¥, çâ® ý­¥£ ⨢ëþ ⨯ \if ¬B , then ¬A ", \if
¬B , then ¬A ", etc. ¬®¦­® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì ¡¥§ ®£à ­¨ç¥­¨©.
‚¥à­¥¬áï ª ®á­®¢­®¬ã ¢¨­®¢­¨ªã í⮣® ¯ã­ªâ | ¨¬¯«¨ª 樨
A → B . Žá®¡¥­­®áâì ­£«¨©áª®£® ï§ëª ¢ ⮬, çâ® if-clause ¢ ®¡ëç­®© à¥ç¨ ­¥á¥â ¢ ᥡ¥ ᨫì­ë© ®â⥭®ª ­¥®¯à¥¤¥«¥­­®á⨠(¯®-àãá᪨
\if ..." ¡«¨¦¥ ª ý㦠¥á«¨ ...þ, 祬 ª ýª ª ⮫쪮 ...þ). â® ¯à¨¢®¤¨â ª
⮬ã, çâ® ¢ if-clause ¬®£ãâ ᮤ¥à¦ âìáï nonassertive words (any, ever,
etc.).
‚ ਠ­âë
If A equals B then A 2 equals B 2 .
If A is solvable, then B will be solvable.
If A was closed then f (A ) was closed as well.
¢ëà ¦ îâ ॠ«ì­ë¥ ãá«®¢¨ï (A ¬®¦¥â à ¢­ïâìáï ­ã«î, ¨«¨ A ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì à §à¥è¨¬ë¬ ¨«¨ § ¬ª­ãâë¬ (¢ ¯à®è«®¬)). ¥®áãé¥á⢨¬ë¥ (­¥à¥ «ì­ë¥) ãá«®¢¨ï ¢ëà ¦ îâáï â ª:
If A equaled 0 then A 2 would be 0.
( ᫨ ¡ë A à ¢­ï«®áì ­ã«î, â® A 2 ¡ë«® ­ã«¥¬. à¨ í⮬ ®
¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ ¥âáï, çâ® A ­ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥ ­¥ à ¢­ï¥âáï ­ã«î. Ÿá­®,
çâ® à¥çì ¨¤¥â ®¡ unreal condition ¢ ­ áâ®ï饬.)

108

ƒ«. 28. If ... Then

If A = 0 had been soluble nontrivially, then |A | would have been
other than zero.
( ᫨ ¡ë A = 0 ¡ë«® à §à¥è¨¬® ­¥âਢ¨ «ì­®, â® |A | ¡ë« ¡ë ­¥
­ã«ì, ­® A , à¥è ¢è¥¥ ãà ¢­¥­¨¥ A = 0, ­ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥ ¡ë«® ­ã«¥¬.
à¨ í⮬ ®¡á㦤 ¥âáï ­¥ª®¥ unreal condition ¢ ¯à®è«®¬.)
ˆ­®£¤ ¨á¯®«ì§ãîâ ¢ ਠ­âë ¡¥§ á®î§ if ¢ á⨫¥
Had C ([0, 1]) a weakly compact neighborhood of zero, this space
would be re exive.
‘ãé¥áâ¢ã¥â ¥é¥ ®¤­ ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ®âà §¨âì àãá᪮¥ ý¥á«¨ ¡ëþ á
­¥à¥ «ì­ë¬ ãá«®¢¨¥¬ á ¯®¬®éìî were | ¢ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ Past Subjunctive:
If the function A were B , then C would equal D .
(®-àãá᪨: ¥á«¨ ¡ë äã­ªæ¨ï A ¡ë« B , â® C à ¢­ï«®áì ¡ë D .
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ were.)
Ÿá­®, çâ® ¢ ਠ­âë, ¯®¤®¡­ë¥ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¬ ®¡®à®â ¬, «¥£ª®
¯à¨¬¥­ïâì ¢ ¤®ª § ⥫ìáâ¢ å ®â ¯à®â¨¢­®£®. ‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥, çâ® were
| íâ® ¥¤¨­á⢥­­ ï (ã­¨¢¥àá «ì­ ï ¨ ã­¨ª «ì­ ï) ä®à¬ Past Subjunctive. é¥ ¤¥â «ì: ¥á«¨ ¯® á¬ëá«ã if = whether, â ª®¥ were ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ 㯮âॡ«ï¥âáï. ‡¤¥áì ¦¥ á⮨⠢ᯮ¬­¨âì ® ¯à¥¤«®£¥ but for,
¢ëà ¦ î饬 àãá᪮¥ ý¥á«¨ ¡ë ­¥ ...þ ( ­£«¨©áª¨© íª¢¨¢ «¥­â if it
were not ...).  ¯à¨¬¥à,
But for completeness, we would readily nd a divergent Cauchy
sequence.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ â ª¦¥, çâ® áâ¥à¥®â¨¯­ë¥ ¨¬¯«¨ª 樨 ¬®£ãâ ¡ëâì § ¬ ᪨஢ ­ë. ‚®â ¢ ਠ­âë:
Granted A , prove B .
Heeding A , deduce B .
Basing (it) on A , derive B .
Leaning on A , infer B .
Grounded on A , the claim B appears.
Founding (it) on A , we conclude that B is true.
With A available, B is immediate.
Provided (that) A holds, B results.
Resting (it) on A , nd B .

ƒ«. 28. If ... Then

109

In case of A , we have B .
In case A is valid, B transpires.
Š®­¥ç­®, íâ®â ᯨ᮪ ‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥ ¯à®¤®«¦¨âì. ‚ᥠ¦¥ ¤«ï ¨§¡¥¦ ­¨ï ®è¨¡®ª ¨ ¢ á«ãç ¥ ¬ «¥©è¨å ª®«¥¡ ­¨©, ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ ©â¥ ᥡï
ã¯à®é¥­­ë¬¨ ¯à ¢¨« ¬¨:

MINICOURSE ýIF{THENþ
‚ᥣ¤ ¯¨è¨â¥ if ... then ... .
¥ ¨á¯®«ì§ã©â¥ were (á he, she, it, I).
‹¨¡® if + Present, then + Present/Future;
«¨¡® if + Past, then Past/Modal Past.
„àã£¨å ¯à ¢¨« ­¥â.

ƒ« ¢ 29
€­£«¨©áª¨© ⥪áâ á àãá᪮©
¯ã­ªâã 樥© ¡¥§®¡à §¥­
’®ç­¥¥, ¬®¦¥â ¡ëâì ¡¥§®¡à §¥­. Œ¥¦¤ã ¯à®ç¨¬, â® ¦¥ ®â­®á¨âáï ¨ ª àãá᪮¬ã ⥪áâã, ­ ¤¥«¥­­®¬ã ¯ã­ªâã 樥© ­ ­£«¨©áª¨©
¬ ­¥à.
Š®­¥ç­®, ¢ ¯à ¢¨« å ¯ã­ªâã 樨 ®¡®¨å ï§ëª®¢ ­¥¬ «® ®¡é¥£®:
â®çª ¢ ª®­æ¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ ¢®¯à®á¨â¥«ì­®£® ¨ ¢®áª«¨æ ⥫쭮£® §­ ª®¢, ¨§®«¨à®¢ ­¨¥ ¢¢®¤­ëå á«®¢ ¨ â. ¯. Ž¤­ ª®
¨¬¥îâáï ¯à¨­æ¨¯¨ «ì­ë¥ ®â«¨ç¨ï, ® áãé¥á⢮¢ ­¨¨ ª®â®àëå ‚ ¬
­ã¦­® ¯®¬­¨âì.
‚ ¯®¤ ¢«ïî饬 ç¨á«¥ á«ãç ¥¢ ­¥¯à¨¥¬«¥¬ ï ¯ã­ªâã æ¨ï ¢ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ¢®§­¨ª ¥â ¯à¨ á®áâ ¢«¥­¨¨ á«®¦­ëå ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©, â ª¦¥
¯à¨ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¨ à §¤¥«ïîé¨å ¨ ¨§®«¨àãîé¨å § ¯ïâëå.
à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï A ¨ B ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ¬®£ãâ ¡ëâì ®¡ê¥¤¨­¥­ë
¢ ®¤­® á«®¦­®¥ á«¥¤ãî騬¨ ᯮᮡ ¬¨:

A conjunction B.
A, conjunction B.
A; B.
A; conjunction B.
(‘â¨à ­¨¥ â®çª¨ ¢ ª®­æ¥ A ¨ ¢®§¬®¦­®¥ ¨§¬¥­¥­¨¥ § £« ¢­®© ¡ãª¢ë
¢ B ¯®¤à §ã¬¥¢ îâáï.)
Conjunction | íâ® á®î§ (¯à®á⮩ á®î§ ⨯ and, but, for, if, since,
etc.; á®áâ ¢­®© (compound or derived) á®î§ ⨯ | however, indeed,

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

111

notwithstanding, etc.; ¨«¨ phrasal conjunction ⨯ as if, in case that,
provided that, inasmuch as, according as, etc.).
¥à¢ë© ¢ ਠ­â ¯®¤å®¤¨â ⮫쪮 ¤«ï áà ¢­¨â¥«ì­® ª®à®âª¨å
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©, ­¥ ᮤ¥à¦ é¨å ¢­ãâ७­¥© ¯ã­ªâã 樨. ‚â®à®© £®¤¨âáï ¨áª«îç¨â¥«ì­® ¤«ï ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨© ¡¥§ ¢­ãâ७­¨å §­ ª®¢ ¯à¥¯¨­ ­¨ï. ‚® ¢á¥å ®áâ «ì­ëå á«ãç ïå ¯à¨¬¥­ïîâáï á奬ë á semicolon
(â®çª®© á § ¯ï⮩).
‘®¥¤¨­¥­¨¥ A ¨ B ¢ ®¤­® ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ¡¥§ á®î§ ¯® á奬¥ A, B
­ §ë¢ îâ comma splice. ‚ ¯¥à¥¢®¤¥ ‚ë ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¤®«¦­ë ¯à¨¬¥­ïâì comma splice. (à¨ç¨­ : â¥, ªâ® ­¥ «î¡¨â comma splice, ¬®£ãâ
®¡¨¤¥âìáï.)
Žâ¬¥âì⥠⠪¦¥, çâ® ¢ ¯ à ««¥«ì­ëå ª®­áâàãªæ¨ïå, ¨¬¥îé¨å
¯à®¯ã᪨, ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ⥪á⥠§ ¯ïâ ï áâ ¢¨âáï â ¬, £¤¥ ¢ àãá᪮¬
㬥áâ­® â¨à¥:
First, we prove Theorem 1; next, Theorem 2.
A admits integration; and B , di erentiation.
‚ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠¥âáï à §¤¥«ïâì §­ ª®¬ ¯à¥¯¨­ ­¨ï
(â®ç­¥¥ £®¢®àï, ­¥ç¥â­ë¬ ç¨á«®¬ â ª¨å §­ ª®¢) £« £®« ¨ ¥£® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥.
Suppose that k = 2.
Notice, for example, that k = 2.
Since f is continuous, we know how f behaves.
Naturally, the strategy now is to prove the promised extension theorem rst of all for special Lipschitz domains; and to extend it then
to sets with minimally smooth boundary.
‚ᥠí⨠¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ᮤ¥à¦ â ª®à४â­ãî ¯ã­ªâã æ¨î. ‚áâ ¢¨âì
¢ ª ª®¥-«¨¡® ¨§ ­¨å ¤®¡ ¢®ç­ãî § ¯ïâãî | §­ ç¨â ᮢ¥àè¨âì £àã¡ãî ®è¨¡ªã.
‚ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ semicolon (;) ¨£à ¥â ­¥áà ¢­¥­­® ¡®«¥¥ § ¬¥â­ãî ஫ì, 祬 â®çª á § ¯ï⮩ ¢ àãá᪮¬. ® ®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã
‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ¯à¨¬¥­¨âì semicolon, ¥á«¨ ‚ë 㦥 ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ «¨ § ¯ïâë¥ ¯à¨ ¯ã­ªâã 樨 ª ª®£®-«¨¡® £à®¬®§¤ª®£® ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï à §¢¥â¢«¥­­®© áâàãªâãàë.
‚ àãá᪮¬ ï§ëª¥ ­¥ à §¤¥«ïîâ § ¯ï⮩ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥 ¨ ᪠§ã¥¬®¥ ¨«¨ ç á⨠á®áâ ¢­®£® á®î§ , â ª ª ª ¯®¤®¡­ë© §­ ª ¯à¥¯¨­ ­¨ï
§ âà㤭ï¥â ¯®­¨¬ ­¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï. ’¥ ¦¥ ¯à ¢¨« ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ ¨
¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥. ‘®¡«î¤ ©â¥ ¨å!

112

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

ˆ§¢¥áâ­®¥ 㤮¡á⢮ ᮧ¤ ¥â ­£«¨©áª®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®, ¯®§¢®«ïî饥
¯à¨ ¦¥« ­¨¨ ¢ë¤¥«ïâì ¢¢®¤­ë¥ í«¥¬¥­âë ¢ ­ ç «¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
By (4.2), the operator is continuous.
To deal with the remaining possibilities, we may assume the worst.
€­ «®£¨ç­®, § ¯ïâ ï ®â¤¥«ï¥â ¡á®«îâ­ë¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨:
The summation now (being) over, we proceed to further stages.
The test for guaranteed accuracy is applied, bounds having been
estimated.
ˆ­®£¤ ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ¢áâ ¢«¥­ë í«¥¬¥­âë (äà §ë, á«®¢ ), ª®â®àë¥
¤®¡ ¢«ïîâ ¯®«¥§­ãî, ­® ­¥ ¡á®«îâ­® ­¥®¡å®¤¨¬ãî ¨­ä®à¬ æ¨î.
( ¯à¨¬¥à, ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠⨯ disjunct: seriously, strictly speaking,
generally, obviously, of course, even more important, etc. ¨«¨ ⨯
conjunct: rst, secondly, to begin with, also, furthermore, equally, by
the way, namely, hence, therefore, thus, etc.) ’ ª¨¥ í«¥¬¥­âë ­¥ ¬¥­ïîâ á¬ëá« ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥¬®£®, çâ® ®âà ¦¥­® ¢ â¥à¬¨­¥ nonrestrictive
(­¥®£à ­¨ç¨¢ î騥). ᫨ ¦¥ í«¥¬¥­â áãé¥á⢥­­® ¢«¨ï¥â ­ ®¡ê¥¬
ᮤ¥à¦ ­¨ï, ¤«ï ­¥£® ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥âáï â¥à¬¨­ restrictive | ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ î騩 (¨­®£¤ £®¢®àïâ de ning | ®¯à¥¤¥«ïî騩). «¥¬¥­âë ⨯
nonrestrictive ®¡ëç­® ¢ë¤¥«ïîâ ¨§®«¨àãî饩 ¯ã­ªâã 樥©, â. ¥. ¯®¬¥é îâ ¢ ᪮¡ª¨ ¨«¨ ®ªà㦠îâ § ¯ïâ묨 (ª®­¥ç­®, ¢ ª®­æ¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï â®çª § ¬¥­ï¥â § ¯ïâãî ¨ â. ¯.). ®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ¨§®«¨àãî騥
§ ¯ïâë¥ íª¢¨¢ «¥­â­ë ᪮¡ª ¬ ( ç¨á«® ®âªàë¢ ¥¬ëå ᪮¡®ª ¢á¥£¤
¤®«¦­® à ¢­ïâìáï ç¨á«ã § ªàë¢ ¥¬ëå).
‚ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ¤¥©áâ¢ã¥â áâண®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®, çâ® ®£à ­¨ç¨-

¢ î騥 í«¥¬¥­âë ­¨ª®£¤ ­¥ ¢ë¤¥«ïîâáï ¨§®«¨àãî騬¨
§ ¯ïâ묨. ‘à ¢­¨â¥:
We consider compact sets of a locally convex space X which are
convex.
We consider compact sets of a locally convex space X, which are
convex.

¥à¢®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ á®®¡é ¥â, çâ® ¬ë à áᬠâਢ ¥¬ ª®¬¯ ªâ­ë¥
¢ë¯ãª«ë¥ ¬­®¦¥á⢠. ‚â®à®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ᮤ¥à¦¨â áâà ­­ë© ­ ¬¥ª ­ ¢ë¯ãª«®áâì ¢á¥å ª®¬¯ ªâ­ëå ¬­®¦¥á⢠¨, ¢® ¢á类¬ á«ãç ¥,
¢ëà ¦ ¥â ­¥ âã ¦¥ ¬ëá«ì, çâ® ¯¥à¢®¥.

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

113

® ®¡é¥¬ã ¯à ¢¨«ã that (ª ª relative pronoun ¢ ஫¨ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣®, â ª ¨ ¢ ä㭪樨 á®î§ ) ®âªàë¢ ¥â ⮫쪮 restrictive clause ¨,
§­ ç¨â, ¨§®«¨àãî饩 ¯ã­ªâã 樨 ­¥â. ˆáª«î祭¨¥¬ ï¥âáï â ª
­ §ë¢ ¥¬®¥ that-appositive clause, ᪠¦¥¬,
The foregoing fact, that boundedness implies continuity, characterizes barrelled spaces.
‚ ¯®¤®¡­ëå á«ãç ïå à §êïá­ï¥¬®¥ á«®¢® | íâ® ­¥ª®â®à®¥ abstract
factive noun (᪠¦¥¬, assumption, proposition, remark, etc.) ®¡ëç­®
¢ ¥¤¨­á⢥­­®¬ ç¨á«¥ ¨, ᢥàå ⮣®, ®¡ï§ ⥫쭮 ¯à¨áãâá⢨¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饣®, ®â«¨ç­®£® ®â ®¡á㦤 ¥¬®£® that. ˆâ ª, ¯à¨ apposition ­ è¥
that ¬®¦¥â ¢¢®¤¨âì ¨ nonrestrictive clause; ¤à㣨å â ª¨å ¢®§¬®¦­®á⥩ ¤«ï that ­¥â.
Žâ¬¥âìâ¥, çâ® apposition (¯®-àãá᪨ ¯à¨«®¦¥­¨¥ ¨«¨ ®¡êïá­¥­¨¥) ¯® á ¬®¬ã ¯®­ïâ¨î ®§­ ç ¥â ¯à ªâ¨ç¥áªãî ¡«¨§®áâì à áᬠâਢ ¥¬ëå «¥ªá¨ç¥áª¨å ¥¤¨­¨æ. ®¯à®áâã £®¢®àï, â®, çâ® ¢ apposition
¤®«¦­® ¡ëâì, ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ¢ë¤¥«¥­® § ¯ïâ묨. ‚¯à®ç¥¬, ¯¯®§¨æ¨ï (ª ª ¨ ®¯¯®§¨æ¨ï) ®£à ­¨ç¨¢ ¥â ¤ «¥ª® ­¥ ¢á¥£¤ .
‘ ¯®¬®éìî ¬¥á⮨¬¥­¨© who/whom ¬®£ãâ ®âªàë¢ âìáï ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî騥 restrictive ¨ nonrestrictive clauses. Œ¥á⮨¬¥­¨¥ which
®¡ëç­® ¢¢®¤¨â nonrestrictive clause. ‚ ¯®¤®¡­ëå ¦¥ ஫ïå ¤¥©áâ¢ãîâ
¨ ¨­ë¥ wh-á«®¢ .
`The word \that" is used to denote restriction while the word
\which" denotes ampli cation.' (S. G. Krantz)
¥¢¥à­® ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­­ë© which á «¥£ª®© à㪨 „. Š­ãâ , § ¢®¥¢ ¢è¥£® ¯à¨§­ ⥫쭮áâì ¬­®£¨å âëáïç ¢â®à®¢ ᢮¨¬ TEX ®¬, ­ §ë¢ îâ
a wicked which.
à¥¤¯®«®¦¨¬, çâ® ‚ë á⮫ª­ã«¨áì á ¤¨«¥¬¬®© which ¨«¨ that.
(‘ª®à¥¥ ¢á¥£®, íâ® §­ ç¨â, çâ® à¥çì ¨¤¥â ® relative restrictive clause
¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ nonpersonal pronoun.) Žáâ ­®¢¨â¥áì ­ which ¢ á«ãç ïå,
¥á«¨ à §êïá­ï¥¬®¥ á«®¢®
( ) inde nite pronoun (e.g., everything, something);
(¡) § ¬¥â­® ®â¤¥«¥­® ¤à㣨¬¨ í«¥¬¥­â ¬¨ ®â clause;
(¢) ­¥ ª¢ «¨ä¨æ¨à®¢ ­® superlative adjective (¯®á«¥, ᪠¦¥¬,
the best result, the nest topology ¯à¨­ïâ® áâ ¢¨âì that; â ª
¦¥ ¯®áâ㯠îâ ¢ ®¡®à®â å the only ... that..., all ... that ...);
(£) âॡã¥â ­ ç « clause á ¯à¥¤«®£ (preposition).

114

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

€ ¢®â ¨ ᮢᥬ ¯à®á⮩ â¥áâ:
`If in doubt between That and Who/Which, use brackets as a test:
if the words can be bracketed \who" or \which" is correct.'
(M. West and P. F. Kimber, Deskbook of Correct English)
᫨ ‚ á ¢áâॢ®¦¨«¨ ¯à¨¢¥¤¥­­ë¥ ¯à¨§­ ª¨, ‚ ¬ ¯®¬®¦¥â 㪠§ ­¨¥ ¢â®à ¬­®£¨å ¯®¯ã«ïà­ëå £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å à㪮¢®¤áâ¢:
\The distinction between which and that is increasingly being blurred and ignored." (John O. K. Clark)
‚ ª ç¥á⢥ ¨««îáâà 樨 ¢§£«ï­¨â¥ ­ à §êïá­¥­¨ï ¯®­ïâ¨ï ¡ ­ 客 ¯à®áâà ­á⢠, ¤ ­­ë¥ ¤¢ã¬ï ¢¥áì¬ ¢â®à¨â¥â­ë¬¨ á«®¢ àﬨ:
\...a vector space on which a norm is de ned which is complete."
(Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, 1989)
\...a vector space on which a norm is de ned that is complete."
(The Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition, 1993)
 ª®­¥æ, ­¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥, çâ® ¢ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ apposition ¬ë ¨á¯®«ì§ã¥¬,
ª ª ¯à ¢¨«®, ⮫쪮 that (¢ ä®à¬¥ nite that-clause):
The new possibility, that we may take δ compactly-supported, entails many simpli cations.
‚®â ª« áá¨ç¥áª¨© ¯à¨¬¥à ­ ⥬㠨ᯮ«ì§®¢ ­¨ï that á® á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ë¬¨ ¨ ®ç¥¢¨¤­ë¬¨ 楫ﬨ:
This is the farmer sowing his corn,
That kept the cock that crowed in the morn,
That waked the priest all shaven and shorn,
That married the man all tattered and torn,
That kissed the maiden all forlorn,
That milked the cow with the crumpled horn,
That tossed the dog,
That worried the cat,
That killed the rat,
That ate the malt,
That lay in the house that Jack built.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ áâ ¢¨âì ¨§®«¨àãî騥 § ¯ïâë¥ ¢ á«ãç ïå, ª®£¤ ¡¥§
­¨å ⥪áâ ­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠¥â ®¤­®§­ ç­®£® ¯à®ç⥭¨ï. ‘à ¢­¨â¥:

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

115

Consider the ideal J of the ring A introduced in Chapter 2.
Consider the ideal J, of the ring A, introduced in Chapter 2.
® 㬮«ç ­¨î ¯¥à¢®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ 㯮¬¨­ ¥â ­¥ª®â®à®¥ ª®«ìæ® A,
¢¢¥¤¥­­®¥ ¢ £«. 2, ¢â®à®¥ | ¨¤¥ « J, ¢¢¥¤¥­­ë© ¢ £«. 2. â®â ¯à¨¬¥à
¨««îáâà¨àã¥â ¨§¢¥áâ­ãî ¬ëá«ì:
\Punctuation is an invaluable aid to clear writing." (F. Whitaker).
„«ï ­ ãç­ëå ⥪á⮢ ⨯¨ç­ë ¯¥à¥ç¨á«¥­¨ï. S. H. Gould ¯® í⮬ã
¯®¢®¤ã ¯¨è¥â:
The commonest reason for unsatisfactory translation of Russian
mathematics is failure on the part of the translator to remember
that Russian often omits \and" where it is necessary in English,
e.g. the usual (though not invariable) Russian way of saying: \let
us construct, a triangle, a circle and a square" is \let us construct
a triangle, a circle, a square."
Žá®¡¥­­®á⨠®ä®à¬«¥­¨ï ¯®á«¥¤®¢ ⥫쭮á⨠®¡ê¥ªâ®¢ ‚ë ¯®©¬¥â¥
¨§ á«¥¤ãîé¨å ¯à¨¬¥à®¢.
Every syllabus of functional analysis encompasses some topics that
originate from at least three disciplines: algebra, geometry, and
topology.
The geometric approach implies speci c tools; for example hyperplanes, extreme points, and polyhedra.
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ § ¯ïâãî ¯¥à¥¤ and ¨ ­ semicolon ¢® ¢â®à®¬
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨. Žâ¬¥âì⥠§¤¥áì ¦¥ ¢ ¦­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«® (áà. £«. 14).
\In American usage, commas and periods always come inside a nal
quote mark; semicolons and colons, outside."
(Thomas S. Kane)
à¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ ¯ã­ªâã 樨 á«¥¤ã¥â ¯®¬­¨âì, çâ® æ¥«ì ¥¥ ¯à¨¬¥­¥­¨ï
¢ ¤®á⨦¥­¨¨ ïá­®á⨠¯¥à¥¤ ¢ ¥¬®£® á®®¡é¥­¨ï. ¥ á⮨⠧ ¡ë¢ âì,
çâ® §­ ª¨ ¯ã­ªâã 樨 (¯à¥¦¤¥ ¢á¥£® § ¯ïâ ï ¨ â®çª á § ¯ï⮩),
­¥ ­¥áã騥 ¯®¤®¡­®© ä㭪樨, ¢®á¯à¨­¨¬ îâáï ­£«¨©áª¨¬ ã§ãᮬ
ª ª § ⥬­ïî騥 á¬ëá«. ‚ í⮩ á¢ï§¨ ‚ë ¤®«¦­ë ¡¥§¦ «®áâ­®

116

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

¨áâॡ«ïâì commas ¨ semicolons, § ªà ¢è¨¥áï ¤«ï ªà á®âë ¨«¨ ¨§
¯®ç⥭¨ï ª ª ª®©-«¨¡® ¤®£¬¥.
„«ï 楫¥© í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ‚ ¬ ¤®áâ â®ç­® § ãç¨âì á«¥¤ãî騥 ã¯à®é¥­­ë¥ ¯à ¢¨« .

ŒˆˆŠ“‘ “Š’“€–ˆˆ
 稭 ©â¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ á ¡®«ì让 ¡ãª¢ë.
‘â ¢ì⥠â®çªã ¢ ª®­æ¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
®áâ ¢¨¢ § ¯ïâãî, ¢á¯®¬­¨â¥ ® semicolon (;).
‘®¥¤¨­ï©â¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï ¯® á奬 ¬
A; B ¨«¨ A, and B ¨«¨ A; and B.
Žä®à¬«ï©â¥ ᯨ᪨ ª ª a, b, and c ¨«¨ a; b; and c.
‚ è¨ ­¥á¯¨á®ç­ë¥ § ¯ïâë¥ â®«ìª® ¤«ï ¨§®«ï樨
(= ¯ à­ë¥).
ˆ§®«¨àã©â¥ ; i.e., ... ; viz., ... ; e.g., ... ; ¨ â. ¯.
¥ ¨§®«¨àã©â¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥, ᪠§ã¥¬®¥, £« £®«ì­®¥
¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥.
®ï¢«¥­¨¥ that | ­¥ ¯®¢®¤ ¤«ï ¯ã­ªâã 樨.
‘â ¢ì⥠â®çªã ¯¥à¥¤ § ªàë¢ ¥¬ë¬¨ ª ¢ëçª ¬¨.

When in doubt, leave comma out.
„àã£¨å ¯à ¢¨« ­¥â.
‚ ¯à¨­æ¨¯¥, ª ç¨á«ã ¯ã­ªâã 樮­­ëå á।á⢠®¡ëç­® ®â­®áïâ
¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥ hyphen (¤¥ä¨á ) ¤«ï ®¡à §®¢ ­¨ï á«®¦­ëå áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå.
ã¦­ë¥ ¢ ¯à ªâ¨ª¥ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¯à ¢¨« ᢮¤ïâáï
ª á«¥¤ãî騬.

ƒ«. 29. ã­ªâã æ¨ï

117

\Hyphen should be used as little as possible, and then only when
needed to avoid confusion in sound or comprehension."
(John O. K. Clark)
\Since the hyphen is always correct for compound modi ers, use it
whenever there is any chance of misunderstanding."
(Longman Guide to English Usage)
\In deciding whether to hyphenate or to combine two words as one,
it is worth bearing in mind that the hyphenated form tends to be
easier to read because the pre x can be seen at a glance."
(N. J. Higham)
ˆ çâ®¡ë § ª®­ç¨âì ⥬ã hyphen, ¯à¨¢¥¤¥¬ á«¥¤ãî饥 ¬¥âª®¥
­ ¡«î¤¥­¨¥ (¥£® ¢â®à G. H. Vallins):
\When two nouns really coalesce to become one ... when they are
linked by a hyphen ... and when they remain separate are questions
that at present state of usage are past the wit of man to answer."
®¤á⢥­­¨ª ¬¨ - ïîâáï { ¨ |.
’¨à¥ | dash | áãé¥áâ¢ã¥â ¢ ­£«¨©áª®¬ ï§ëª¥ ¢ ¤¢ãå ¨¯®áâ áïå: ª ª em-dash | (è¨à¨­®© á® áâà®ç­ãî ¡ãª¢ã M) ¨ en-dash { (¢
¯®«®¢¨­ã em-dash). ’¨à¥ em-dash ¢¥áì¬ à¥¤ª¨© í«¥¬¥­â ¥áâ¥á⢥­­®­ ãç­ëå ⥪á⮢, á¯®à ¤¨ç¥áª¨ ¨á¯®«­ïî騩 à®«ì ¤¢®¥â®ç¨ï ¨«¨
¨§®«¨àãî騩 ¯®¯ãâ­®¥ ®âáâ㯫¥­¨¥ ¢­ãâਠ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï. ” ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ ‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥ ¨áª«îç¨âì em-dash ¨§ àᥭ « ‚ è¨å ¯ã­ªâã 樮­­ëå á।áâ¢. ‘ en-dash â ª ¯®áâ㯨âì ­¥«ì§ï | íâ®â §­ ª ®¡ï§ ⥫¥­
¢ ¢ëà ¦¥­¨ïå ¢à®¤¥ \the H hn{Ban ch Theorem" ¨«¨ \the 1995{1996
Chechen war." Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ ®âáãâá⢨¥ ¯à®¡¥«®¢ ¢®ªàã£
em-dash ¨ en-dash | â ª®¢ ­®à¬ ­£«¨©áª®£® ¯à ¢®¯¨á ­¨ï.
 ª®­¥æ, ¯®á«¥¤­¥¥. Š ª ¯¨è¥â John O. K. Clark:
\Authorities continue to argue about punctuation."
Ž¤­ ª®, íâ® ­¥ ®§­ ç ¥â, çâ® ‚ ¬ á«¥¤ã¥â ­ 㪠§ ­­®¬ ®á­®¢ ­¨¨
íªá¯¥à¨¬¥­â¨à®¢ âì á ¯ã­ªâã 樥©. ‘ª®à¥¥ ­ ®¡®à®â, ¯à¨ ¬ «¥©è¨å ᮬ­¥­¨ïå ¢ ¯à ¢¨«ì­®á⨠¢ë¡à ­­ëå ‚ ¬¨ §­ ª®¢ ­¥¬¥¤«¥­­®
ã¯à®áâ¨â¥ £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áªãî ¨ «®£¨ç¥áªãî áâàãªâãàë ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï.
‚ ¬ ¢ ¦­® ¯¥à¥¤ âì á¬ëá«, ­¥ «¨­£¢¨áâ¨ç¥áªãî ä®à¬ã ­ ãç­®£®
á®®¡é¥­¨ï.
Punctuate for clarity, not for fun!

ƒ« ¢ 30
’à㤭®á⨠¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï
Š ç¥á⢮ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¢® ¬­®£®¬ ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥âáï ¤¥â «ï¬¨, ­¥áãé¥á⢥­­ë¬¨ ­ ¢§£«ï¤ «î¡¨â¥«ï (­ ¯à¨¬¥à, íª¢¨¢ «¥­â­ë¥ ¤«ï 䨫¨áâ¥à ®¡®à®âë \admit of two interpretations" ¨ \admit being wrong"
­¥ ¤®¯ã᪠îâ ᢮¡®¤­®© ¯¥à¥áâ ­®¢ª¨ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨©).
®¤¡®à ¯à ¢¨«ì­ëå ¤®¯®«­¥­¨© ª £« £®« ¬ ®âà ¦¥­ ¢ £«. 21.
‡¤¥áì ¬ë ®áâ ­®¢¨¬áï ­ ­ «®£¨ç­ëå ¯à®¡«¥¬ å ¤«ï ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå ¨ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå.
à®ä¥áᨮ­ «¨§¬ âॡã¥â ®â í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª §­ ­¨© å®âï ¡ë ® ⮬, çâ® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå ¨ ¯à¨« £ ⥫ì­ëå ¨¬¥¥â ¬ ááã á«®¦­®á⥩ ¨«¨, ª ª £®¢®àïâ, á¢ï§ ­® á «¥ªá¨ç¥áª¨¬¨ § ¢¨á¨¬®áâﬨ.
¥áᯮ୮, ®â¤¥«ì­ë¥ ¤¥â «¨ ¬®£ãâ ¢ë¯ áâì ¨§ ¯ ¬ï⨠(‚ë ¬®¦¥â¥ § ¡ëâì, çâ®, ª®­¥ç­®, ­¥¦¥« ⥫쭮, ® ­¥¤®¯ãá⨬®á⨠­¥ª®â®àëå ª®­ªà¥â­ëå ®¡®à®â®¢ \my purpose for earning extra money",
\such books that are left unreviewed", \the axiom accountable for extensionality", etc.), ®¤­ ª® ¯®¬­¨âì ® ­ «¨ç¨¨ âà㤭®á⥩ ¢ ¢ë¡®à¥
¯à ¢¨«ì­ëå ¤®¯®«­¥­¨© ‚ë ®¡ï§ ­ë.
Œ­®£¨¥ â®­ª®á⨠¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥­ë ¢ Appendix 5.
‚ ª®«®­ª¥ +[prep] 㪠§ ­ ¯à¥¤«®£ (¨«¨ ¬­®¦¥á⢮ ¯à¥¤«®£®¢)
¨§ ç¨á« â¥å, ª®â®àë¥ ®¡ëç­® á«¥¤ãîâ § ¤®¯®«­ï¥¬ë¬ á«®¢®¬ ¨§
«¥¢®£® á⮫¡æ . ‚ ª®«®­ª¥ [prep]+ 䨣ãà¨àãî⠯।«®£¨, ª®â®à묨
¯à¨­ïâ® ¯à¥¤¢ àïâì à áᬠâਢ ¥¬®¥ á«®¢®. ‚뤥«¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®£
ᨬ¢®«¨§¨àã¥â ¥£® ¯à¨¢¥à¦¥­­®áâì ª ¢¢¥¤¥­¨î ¢ ¤ ­­®¬ ª®­â¥ªáâ¥
£¥àã­¤¨ «ì­ëå ®¡®à®â®¢.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ¢ ¦­®¥ ¯à ¢¨«®:

ƒ«. 30. Complementation

119

\The complement of a preposition can be an ing-participle clause,
whose subject, if introduced, may or may not be a genitive."
(R. Quirk et al.)
 «¨ç¨¥ + ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ +[f] ®§­ ç ¥â, çâ® § á«®¢®¬ (¨§ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饩 áâப¨) ¬®¦¥â á«¥¤®¢ âì ­¥ª®â®à®¥ nite that-clause (¨ ¤ ¦¥
¢ ஫¨ object complement).
\Many of the nouns used in this way are related to reporting verbs."
(Collins COBUILD English Grammar)
‘¨¬¢®« ± 㪠§ë¢ ¥â ­ ¤®¯ãá⨬®áâì Present Subjunctive. Žâ¬¥âìâ¥,
çâ® ¤«ï a factual adjective (concerned with the truth-value of the complementation) ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì +[f] ®¡ëç­® à §à¥è ¥â ¨ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥
wh-clause. ‚ ¦­® ¯®¤ç¥àª­ãâì, çâ® [n]+[f] ¬®¦¥â áâ®ïâì ¢ ¯®§¨æ¨¨
£« £®«ì­®£® ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï (¯à¨ ­ «¨ç¨¨ ¤®«¦­ëå 㪠§ ­¨© ¢ â ¡«¨æ¥), â. ¥. ä®à¬ [Tn] á noun, ¤®¯ã᪠î騬 [n]+[f], ¢â®¬ â¨ç¥áª¨
à §à¥è ¥â [Tnf].  ¯à¨¬¥à, we obtain the fact that A is equal to B .
‡­ ª + ¢ ª®«®­ª¥ +[t] ®§­ ç ¥â ã§ã «ì­®áâì ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï á ¯®¬®éìî to-in nitive clause. ’®ç­¥¥ £®¢®àï, à¥çì ¨¤¥â ® ª®­áâ â 樨
­®à¬ ⨢­®© ª®««®ª 樨 (᪠¦¥¬, \a chance to compute" | ãáâ®©ç¨¢ë© ®¡®à®â, á®ç¥â ­¨¥ \a possibility to compute" ᮬ­¨â¥«ì­®).
Žâ¬¥âì⥠¤«ï ᥡï, çâ® à áᬠâਢ ¥¬ ï ª®«®­ª +[t] ­¥ ॣ« ¬¥­â¨àã¥â ᢮¡®¤­ë¥ ª®¬¡¨­ 樨.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¨ \Look for
a dictionary to nd an explanation" à¥çì ¨¤¥â ®¡ ¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢¥, ®â­®áï饬áï ª® ¢á¥¬ã ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨î. ‚ á ¬®¬ ¤¥«¥, âã ¦¥ ¬ëá«ì ¢ëà ¦ ¥â
®¡®à®â: \Look for a dictionary in order to nd an explanation."  §ã¬¥¥âáï, ­ â ªãî ª®¬¡¨­ æ¨î § ¯à¥â®¢ ­¥â. €­ «®£¨ç­®, ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥
\A procedure to follow is presented in Item 2" ä ªâ¨ç¥áª¨ íª¢¨¢ «¥­â­® ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨ \A procedure that is to follow is presented in Item 2."
Š®­¥ç­®, ¨ íâ®â ®¡®à®â ¢¯®«­¥ § ª®­¥­.
Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ ®á®¡¥­­®áâì ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮£®
[a] á ¯®¬®éìî to-in nitive clause.  «¨ç¨¥ + ­ ¯¥à¥á¥ç¥­¨¨ ª®«®­ª¨
+[t] á® áâப®©, ᮤ¥à¦ 饩 [a], ®§­ ç ¥â ¤®¯ãá⨬®áâì extraposition,
â. ¥. ª®­áâàãªæ¨î it is [a] + to + in nitive á \dummy" it (¨ ®¤­®¢à¥¬¥­­® ¨á室­®£® ý¢®§¬®¦­®£® ¤«ï íªáâà ¯®§¨æ¨¨þ ¯à®®¡à § : to +
in nitive is [a]). Œ®¤¨ä¨ª æ¨ï ¤à㣨å noun phrases á ¨­ë¬¨ ¯®¤«¥¦ 騬¨, ¢®®¡é¥ £®¢®àï, ï¥âáï «¥ªá¨ç¥áª¨ § ¢¨á¨¬ë¬ 䥭®¬¥­®¬
(â. ¥. ®¯à¥¤¥«ï¥âáï ã§ãᮬ). ‘ª ¦¥¬, ¢ ਠ­âë

120

ƒ«. 30. Complementation
Those problems are liable to be encountered in practice.
The condition of compatibility is bound to be imposed.

¢¯®«­¥ ¯à¨¥¬«¥¬ë. ‡ ¬¥­¨¢ ¦¥ ¢ ­¨å liable ­ possible ¢ ¯¥à¢®¬
¨ bound ­ necessary ¢® ¢â®à®¬, ¬ë ¯®«ã稬 § ¯à¥é¥­­ë¥ ᮫¥æ¨§¬ë. ®¤®¡­ ï ¢®§¬®¦­®áâì ¤«ï ¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï ¯à¨« £ ⥫쭮£® ¨­ä¨­¨â¨¢®¬ ®â¬¥ç¥­ ¢ â ¡«¨æ¥ Appendix 5 ᨬ¢®«®¬ [ ]+.
Appendix 5 ­¥ ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â ¨áç¥à¯ë¢ î騥 ®â¢¥âë ­ ¢á¥ âà㤭®áâ¨, á ª®â®à묨 ‚ë á⮫ª­¥â¥áì ¯à¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ ¤®¯®«­¥­¨©. Ž­ ¯à¨§¢ ­, ®¡«¥£ç ï ‚ èã ¦¨§­ì, ­ ¯®¬¨­ âì ® £à®§ïé¨å ®¯ á­®áâïå.
‘¯à ¢«ïâìáï á ­¨¬¨ ¢ ¯®«­®© ¬¥à¥ ‚ ¬ ¯à¨¤¥âáï á ¬®áâ®ï⥫쭮.
¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ ®¡ í⮬ ¨ ®â­®á¨â¥áì ª ᥡ¥ á ¤®«¦­®© âॡ®¢ ⥫쭮áâìî.
¥ ¯¨è¨â¥ çâ® ¯®¯ «®, à㪮¢®¤áâ¢ãïáì ª «ìª ¬¨ á àãá᪮£®,
ä®à¬ «ì­ë¬¨ ­ «®£¨ï¬¨, áá뫪 ¬¨ ­ ¯ ¬ïâì ¨ â. ¯.
‘¢¥àï©â¥áì á® á¯à ¢®ç­¨ª ¬¨, á«®¢ ६ ¨ ®¡à §æ®¬!

ƒ« ¢ 31
®«ì§ã©â¥áì ४®¬¥­¤ æ¨ï¬¨
‘. ƒ®ã«¤
‚®â ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¨§ ­¨å.
One objection, among many, to translating abstract nouns by abstract
nouns is that in an unin ected language like English the result is usually
an unpleasant pile-up of prepositional phrases.
One of the numerous e ects of the absence, in Russian, of a de nite
article is the super uity, to English ears, of participles of all kinds, active
and passive, present and past, preceding and following the noun. Very
often the sole purpose of the Russian participle is to refer unambiguously
to some preceding word, a task ideally performed by the English word
\the".... If the participle is an honest one, even by the standards of
a language with a de nite article, it will usually come after the noun in
English.... Consequently it is wise, and at times almost mandatory, to
omit certain Russian participles in translation.
The moral for the modern translator is to use \the" for the Russian íâ®â
in those places where the only purpose of íâ®â is to refer unemphatically
to some preceding word....
Phrases like \the elements of the set S " or \the points of the space W "
are very common, but if the set, or space, group, eld, etc. has been
mentioned just before, it is more natural in English to say \the elements
of S ," \the points of W " etc.
The Russian phrase â®â ¨«¨ ¨­®© does not mean \this or another" but
rather \one or another," \some or other," and can usually be translated

122

ƒ«. 31. ¥ª®¬¥­¤ 樨 ‘. ƒ®ã«¤

by various.
(Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥, çâ® . • «¬®è ¨ C. ƒ®ã«¤ ¯à¨¤¥à¦¨¢ îâáï
­¥áª®«ìª® à §­ëå ¢§£«ï¤®¢ ­ ¯ã­ªâã æ¨î. ˆ¬¥­­®, ‘. ƒ®ã«¤ ¢á¥£¤
áâ ¢¨â § ¯ïâãî ¯¥à¥¤ § ªàë¢ ¥¬ë¬¨ ª ¢ëçª ¬¨, . • «¬®è ­¥
¢á¥£¤ . Ž¡¥ ­ §¢ ­­ë¥ áâà ⥣¨¨ ã§ã «ì­ë.)
...the word \its" is tricky. Thus \its singular point" necessarily implies
in English that the function has only one such point....
(®ïá­¨¬, çâ® its ®§­ ç ¥â \the one (ones) belonging to it." ‘â «®
¡ëâì, its singular point = the singular point of it.  §ã¬¥¥âáï, íâ®
­¥ ®â¬¥­ï¥â ¯à ¢¨« \every can co-occur with possessives" (R. Quirk
et al.) ¨, ᪠¦¥¬, ª ª 㦥 ®â¬¥ç «®áì, its every subalgebra = each of
its subalgebras.)
In English \respectively" is seldom inserted in the second parenthesis,
and in general the word \respectively" is used far less often in English
than in Russian.
The Russian word ¯ã­ªâ means \item," \heading" or \subsection," usually numbered; ¯ à £à ä means \section"; the Russian word for \paragraph" is ¡§ æ.
When à ¡®â refers to a de nite book or article, the translation \work"
is sometimes unidiomatic; à ¡®â should then be translated by \book"
or \article," depending on which of the two it actually is; but often it
can be simply omitted.
It is a solecism in English to use the word \both," instead of \the two,"
in a statement which, usually because of the presence of some word like
\together" or \equal," becomes nonsensical when applied to one person
or thing. Thus \the numbers are both large" but \the two numbers are
equal." There is no such limitation on the Russian word ®¡ .
It is true that in English \may" is sometimes more elegant than \can";
for example, \we may assume that n is prime." But \can" is much safer,
especially with such words as \not" and \only." \May not" is ambiguous
in English....
In Russian there are many variants for \if and only if,"... but the phrase
does not vary in English.

ƒ«. 31. ¥ª®¬¥­¤ 樨 ‘. ƒ®ã«¤

123

(‡ ¯®¬­¨â¥, çâ® ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª ï ­®¢ æ¨ï iff 㦥 ¬­®£® «¥â ¢áâà¥ç ¥âáï ¢ å®à®è¨å ª­¨£ å, ¨ 㠂 á ¥áâì ¨§¢¥áâ­ë¥ ®á­®¢ ­¨ï ¯à¨
­¥®¡å®¤¨¬®á⨠¥¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ âì. ˆ§«¨è­îî ¤«ï ­ã¦¤ í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª®£® ¯¥à¥¢®¤ í«¥£ ­â­®áâì ᮧ¤ ¥â (­¥®¡ï§ â¥«ì­ ï) ¯ã­ªâã æ¨ï
...if, and only if,...!)
The combination \since ..., then ..." (â ª ª ª ..., â® ...) is extremely
common in mathematical Russian but totally inadmissible in English.
When a signpost is needed in English ... to show where the principal
clause begins, the best one is usually \it follows that," and if this phrase
seems too ponderous, the translation can fall back on the stereotyped
\we have."
(‚­¨¬ ⥫ì­ë© ç¨â â¥«ì § ¬¥â¨â, çâ® ®¡®à®â since ..., then ... ¯à®ª«ïâ 㦥 ¢ âà¥â¨© à §. ᫨ ¡ë íâ® «¥ª àá⢮ ¯®¬®£ «®...)
One indispensable rule for all good translation is that the translator must
read his work again at least twenty-four hours later. At the time of rst
making a translation the translator knows what his English sentences
mean, since he has the Russian in front of him (or in his memory) to tell
him, and this unfair advantage over the ultimate consumer cannot be sufciently discounted in less than about twenty-four hours.... In the nal
rereading, at least twenty-four hours after rst translating the passage,
please check that all sentences are complete and all symbols are clear,
and that no sentences, footnotes or other, have been unintentionally left
out.

ƒ« ¢ 32
Ž¡¤ã¬ ©â¥ ᮢ¥âë . • ©¥¬
‚ ­¥¤ ¢­¥© ¯®¯ã«ïà­®© ¡à®èîॠHandbook of Writing for the
Mathematical Sciences, ª®â®àãî ­ ¯¨á « Nicholas J. Higham, á®¡à ­ë
¬­®£¨¥ ¯®«¥§­ë¥ ­ ¡«î¤¥­¨ï. ‚®â ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¨§ ­¨å, ®â­®áï騥áï
ª ­ 襩 ⥬¥.
Certain adjectives have an absolute meaning and cannot be quali ed by
words such as less, quite, rather and very.... However, essentially unique
is an acceptable term in mathematical writing: it means unique up to
some known transformations.
Use an adjective only if it earns its place. The adjectives very, rather,
quite, nice and interesting should be used with caution in technical writing, as they are imprecise.
Try to avoid using nouns as adjectives.
An adverb that is overworked in mathematical writing is essentially ....
A valid use of essentially is in the expression \essentially the same as",
which by convention in scienti c writing means \the same, except for
minor details".
(Ž¡à â¨â¥ ¢­¨¬ ­¨¥ ­ ¢â®àáªãî à ááâ ­®¢ªã §­ ª®¢ ¯à¥¯¨­ ­¨ï,
®â«¨ç­ãî ®â ®¡á㦤 ¥¬®© ¢ £«. 29.)
-al and -age .... The sux tends to give a more abstract meaning, which
makes it more dicult to use the word correctly.
The Lax Equivalence Theorem is quite di erent from a lax equivalence
theorem!

ƒ«. 32. ‘®¢¥âë . • ©¥¬

125

...the trend is not to hyphenate compound words beginning with pre xes
such as multi, pre, post, non, pseudo and semi.
Contractions such as it's, let's, can't and don't are not used in formal
works.
Small integers should be spelled out when used as adjectives (\The three
lemmas"), but not when used as names or numbers (\The median age is
43" or \This follows from Theorem 3"). The number 1 is a special case,
for often \one" or \unity" reads equally well or better....
Here are some words and phrases whose omission often improves a sentence:
actually, very, really, currently, in fact, thing, without doubt.
The exclamation mark should be used with extreme caution in technical
writing. If you are tempted to exclaim, read \!" as \shriek"; nine times
out of ten you will decide a full stop is adequate.
Try not to begin a sentence with there is or there are. These forms of
the verb be make a weak start to a sentence.... Also worth avoiding,
if possible, are \It is" openers, such as \It is clear that" and \It is
interesting to note that". If you can nd alternative wordings, your
writing will be more fresh and lively.
... I recommend the rule \if in doubt use the present tense".
... in mathematical writing \we" is by far the most common choice
of personal pronoun.... \We" can be used in the sense of \the reader
and I".... Whether you choose \I" or \we", you should not mix the two
in a single document, except, possibly, when using the \reader and I"
form of \we".
\One", as in \one can show that..." is often used, but is perhaps best
avoided because of its vague, impersonal nature.

ƒ« ¢ 33
â® ¢®§¬®¦­®!
‚ë ¯®¤®è«¨ ª ª®­æã ¯¥à¢®©, ¢ ®á­®¢­®¬ ¯®¢¥á⢮¢ ⥫쭮©, ç á⨠í⮩ ¡à®èîàë.  ¤¥îáì, çâ® ¢ ¯à®æ¥áᥠç⥭¨ï ‚ë á 㤮¢®«ìá⢨¥¬ ¢á¯®¬­¨«¨ ­¥ª®â®àë¥ ¤¥â «¨ ­£«¨©áª®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¨ ¨, ¢®§¬®¦­®, ¤ ¦¥ ¢áâà¥â¨«¨ çâ®-â® ­®¢®¥ ¨ ¯®«¥§­®¥ ¤«ï ᥡï.
Žáâ ¢è ïáï ç áâì ª­¨£¨ ᮤ¥à¦¨â á¯à ¢®ç­ë¥ ᢥ¤¥­¨ï ¨ §­ ç¨â¥«ì­ë© ¬ â¥à¨ « ¤«ï ‚ 襩 á ¬®áâ®ï⥫쭮© à ¡®âë ¯® ᮢ¥à襭á⢮¢ ­¨î ᮡá⢥­­®£® ­ ãç­®£® «¥ªá¨ª®­ . –¥«ì ¯à¨¢®¤¨¬ëå
­¨¦¥ ¤®¢®«ì­® ®¡è¨à­ëå ¯®¤¡®à®ª á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå â¥à¬¨­®¢ ¨ ⨯¨ç­ëå á«®¢®á®ç¥â ­¨©, â ª¦¥ áâ ­¤ àâ­ëå ®¡®à®â®¢, ¯®«¥§­ëå ᮢ¥â®¢ ¨ ¤¥ª« à 権 ¢ ⮬, çâ®¡ë § ¤¥âì ‚ èã ¨áá«¥¤®¢ ⥫ìáªãî
¦¨«ªã.  ¯à¨¬¥à, ¢­¨¬ ⥫ì­ë© ­ «¨§ ¯¥à¢®© ç á⨠§ £« ¢¨ï ª­¨£¨ ¬®¦¥â ¯®¤áª § âì ç¨â ⥫î, çâ® ®­® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥â ᮡ®© ¢ ਠ­â
®¡ëç­®£® \Translation from Russian into English" ¢ ¯¥à¥«®¦¥­¨¨ ­
ï§ëª, ª®â®àë© ¯à¨­ïâ® ­ §ë¢ âì Russian English. „®«¦¥­ ᮧ­ âìáï, çâ® â ª®© â®­ª¨© íä䥪⠭¥ ¡ë« ®á®§­ ­ ¬­®î ¯à¨ ¢ë¡®à¥ ­ §¢ ­¨ï ª­¨£¨ ¢ 1991 £®¤ã. “ í⮣® £®à쪮£® ¯à¨§­ ­¨ï ¥áâì ¯à¨ïâ­ ï
®¡®à®â­ ï áâ®à®­ | ¤«ï ¬¥­ï ¢à¥¬ï ¯à®è«® ­¥ §àï...
†¥« î ¨ ‚ ¬ ⢮àç¥áª¨å ¯®¨áª®¢, ¢®«­¥­¨© ¨ ãᯥ客!
¥ ®âç ¨¢ ©â¥áì!
‘®åà ­ï©â¥ 㢥७­®áâì: å®à®è¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ ¢®§¬®¦¥­!
¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨...

Appendix 1
Name List
Abelard
Aesculapius
Ahlfors
Airy
Aitken
Alaoglu
al-Khwarizmi
Amitsur
Ampere
Angstrom
Anselm
Appell
Archimedes
Aristotle
Arzela
Aschbacher
Atiyah
Auerbach
Avogadro
Backlund
Baer
Baire
Banach
Barrow
Barwise
Bayes
Bayre
Becquerel
Behrends
Bellman
Bensoussan
Berkeley
Bernays
Bernoulli

Berthelot
Bertollet
Berzelius
Beth
Bethe
Beurling
Bezout
Bianchi
Bieberbach
Birkho
Bjorck
Blaschke
Blausius
Bl^och
B^ocher
Bochner
Bockstein
Bocthius
Bohnenblust
Bohr
Boltzmann
Bolyai
Bolzano
Boole
Borel
Bourbaki
Bourger
Boussinesq
Boyle
Brezis
Brillouin
Bromwich
Brouwer
Browder
Buckingham

Burali-Forti
Burgers
Burkwardt
Burnside
Calderon
Calvin
Camus
Cantor
Caratheodory
Cardanus
Carleman
Carleson
Carlyle
Carnot
Cartan
Castelnuovo
Cauchy
Cavalieri
Cavendish
Cayley

Cech
Celcius
Cesaro
Chadwick
Chapman
Chazarain
Chebyshev
Cheeger
Chevalley
Choquet
Christo el
Church
Clairaut
Clapeyron

128
Clarke
Clausius
Clebsch
Codazzi
Cohen
Cohn-Vossen
Condorcet
Confucius
Copernicus
Coriolis
Cotes
Couette
Coulomb
Courant
Cousin
Coxeter
Craig
Cramer
Cramer
Crelle
Curie
Cusanus
d'Alembert
D'Arsonval
Daniell
Dantzig
Darboux
Darwin
de Branges
Debreu
De Broglie
Debye
de la Metrie
de la Vallee-Poussin
de l'H^opital
Deligne
Democritos
de Moivre
De Morgan
de Rham
Desargues

Appendix 1
Descartes
de Vries
de Sitter
Dewar
Diderot
Diedonne
Diestel
Dijkstra
Diophantus
Dirichlet
Dixmier
Dobereiner
Dodgson
Dolbeault
Doob
Doppler
Douglis
Dragoni
Du Bois-Reymond
Dugundji
Duhamel
Dulong
Dvoretzky
Eberlein
Eddington
Edgeworth
Ehrenfest
Ehrenpreis
Eidelheit
Eilenberg
Eistein
Elohim
Epicuros
Epstein
Erasmus
Eratosthenes
Erdos
Escher
Euclid
Eudoxus
Euler

Fahrenheit
Fan Ky
Fantappie
Faraday
Farkas
Fatou
Fejer
Fenchel
Fermat
Feuerbach
Feynman
Fibonacci
Fick
Fitting
Fizeau
Foias
Foocault
Fourier
Fraenkel
Frechet
Fresnel
Freudenthal
Friedman
Friedrichs
Froude
Fubini
Fuchs
Fukamiya
Gagliardo
Galilei
Galois
Galvany
Garding
G^ateaux
Gauss
Gehring
Geiger
Gelfand
Gentzen
Geo roy
Gevrey

Name List
Gibbs
Godel
Goursat
Gram
Grashof
Grassmann
Gratzer
Grobher
Gronwall
Groslot
Grothendieck
Grotzsch
Grunbaum
Guldin
Hadamard
Hahn
Halley
Hamel
Hamilton
Harish-Chandra
Harnack
Hartogs
Hausdor
Heaviside
Heine
Heisenberg
Hellinger
Helmholtz
Henkin
Herbrand
Herglotz
Hermite
Herodotus
Herschel
Hertz
Herve
Hewitt
Heyting
Hilbert
Hippocrates
Hirschfeld

129
Hirzebruch
Holder
Hooke
Hopf
Hormander
Horner
Hrbacek
Hugoniot
Hume
Hupatia
Hurwitz
Huygens
Ionescu-Tulcea
Ising
It^o K.
Jacobi
Janiszewski
Janko
Jech
Jensen
John
Joliot-Curie
Jordan
Joule
Julia
Kaczmarz
Kahane
Kahler
Kakutani
Kalman
Kaloujnine
Kaluza
Kamerling Onnes
Karman
Kauser
Keisler
Kelley
Kellogg
Khayyam
Killing

Kirchho
Kleene
Klein
Knudsen
Knuth
Kobayashi
Kodaira
Komlos
Konig
Kopernicus
Korn
Korteweg
Koszul
Kothe
Kreisel
Krivine
Kronecker
Krull
Kuhn
Kuiper
Kunen
Kunneth
Kunze
Kuratowski
Kutta
Lagrange
Laguerre
Lambert
Lame
Lang
Langevin
Laplace
Laugwitz
Laurent
Lavoisier
Lawrence
Lawvere
Lax
Lebesgue
Lefschetz
Legendre

130
Leibniz
Leonardo da Vinci
Leray
Leukippos
Levi-Civita
Levy B.
Levy P.
Lewy H.
Lichnerowicz
Lichtenberg
Lie
Liebig
Lindeberg
Lindelof
Lindenstrauss
Linne
Liouville
Lipschitz
Lissajous
Lloyd
Lob
Locke
Locket
Loeb
Loeve
Lojasiewicz
Lorentz
Los
Loschmidt
Lovaglia
Loventhal
Lowenheim
Lucretius
Lukasiewicz
Lummer
Luxemburg
Luzin
Mobius
MacLane
Mach
Macintyre

Appendix 1
Mackey
Maclaurin
Magnus
Maharam
Malcev
Malebranche
Malinvaud
Malliavin
Mandelbrot
Marcinkiewicz
Marconi
Marggraf
Mariotte
Martin-Lof
Martineau
Maschke
Mathieu
Maupertuis
Maurey
Maxwell
Mazur
Mazurkiewicz
McShane
Mehler
Melain
Mersenne
Meusnier
Michael
Michelson
Mikusinski
Millican
Milne
Minkowski
Minsky
Mirimano
Mittag-Leer
Mohammed
Monge
Mongoler
Montaigne
More

Morera
Morin
Morley
Morrey
Moschovakis
Nachbin
Navier
Neugebauer
Neumann
Nevanlinna
Nicolson
Nicholson
Nieuwentijt
Nikodym
Nobeling
Noether
Nomizu
Occam
Oersted
Ogasawara
Ohm
Oresme
Orlicz
Ostrowski
Ostwald
Oxtoby
Ozawa
Paine
Painleve
Paley
Papin
Paracelsus
Pareto
Pasch
Pasteur
Pauli
Pauling
Peclet
Peetre
Peierls

Name List
Pelczynski
Perrin
Pfa
Picard
Pietsch
Pincherle
Pisot
Plancherel
Planck
Plateau
Plato
Plemelj
Plinus
Plucker
Poincare
Poiseuille
Poisson
Polya
Pompeiu
Poncelet
Powell
Prandtl
Prevost
Priestley
Prigogine
Prufer
Ptak
Pythagoras
Quillen
Quine
Rademacher
Rado
Radon
Radstrom
Ramanujan
Ramsey
Rasiowa
Rayleigh
Reamur
Regnault

131
Rellich
Renyi
Reuleaux
Reynolds
Riccati
Ricci
Richard
Richtmyer
Riemann
Riesz
Rinow
Ritz
Romer
Rontgen
Rouche
Routh
Rungle
Russel
Rutherford
Ryll-Nardzewski
Sahlqvist
Saint-Venant
Salem
Samuelson
Santalo
Sartre
Savart
Savonarola
Scarf
Schaefer H.
Schae er A.
Schatten
Schauder
Schiaparelli
Schi er
Schla i
Schlichting
Schmidt
Schrodinger
Schoenberg
Schoen ies

Schopenhauer
Schottky
Schouten
Schreier
Schur
Schwartz
Schwarz
Scorza
Scott
Sebasti~ao e Silva
Segre
Seidel
Seifert
Seki (Kowa)
Selberg
Serre
Shelah
Shla i
Shoen eld
Siddhartha Gautama,
Buddha
Shakya-muni
Siegel
Siemens
Sierpinski
Sigmund
Sikorski
Singer
Sjogren
Skolem
Smulian
Smullyan
Sobczyk
Soddy
Solovay
Sommerfeld
Sorgenfrey
Souslin
Specht
Sperner
Spinoza

132
Stampacchia
Steenrod
Steinhaus
Steinitz
Stiefel
Stieltjes
Stokes
Stolz
Strmer
Strabon
Strassen
Sturm
Subaoth
Swarzschild
Sylow
Synge
Szego
Szilard
Szekefalvi-Nagy
Takesaki
Takeuti
Tarski
Tartaglia
Teichmuller
Thales
Thenard
Theophrastos
Thom
Thomson
Thorin
Thurston
Tietze
Titchmarsh
Toeplitz

Appendix 1
Tonelli
Torricelli
Treves
Tricomi
Triebel
Troelstra
Truesdell
Tschirnhaus
Tsirel0 son
Tucker
Turing
Tychono
Tzafriri
Uhl
Uhlenbeck
Ulam
Urysohn
Vaisala
Vandermonde
van der Pol
van der Waerden
van Kampen
Varadarajan
Varignon
Vaught
Viete
Vietoris
Vitali
Voltaire
Volterra
von Karman
von Mises
von Neumann
Vopenka

Vorono
Waelbroeck
Walras
Walsh
Wasow
Wedderburn
Weierstrass
Weil A.
Weingarten
Wentzenbock
Weyl H.
Whitney
Whittaker
Wien
Wiener
Wigner
Wittgenstein
Wronski
Yacobi
Yahweh
Yang
Yau
Yosida
Yukawa
Zaanen
Zaremba
Zariski
Zassenhaus
Zeeman
Zeno
Zermelo
Zorn
Zygmund

Appendix 2
Mottoes, Dicta, and Clichés
A is ∀ upside down.
A acknowledges that A = A .
A and 1/A are reciprocals.
A and B can be read o from C .
A answers for {A }.
A belongs to {A }; so {A } 6= ∅
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

as claimed.
carries a topology.
causes no problem.
corresponds to {A }.
decreases A + 1 by 1.
divides into A 2 two times.
ends in a failure.
equals A B modulo B .
equals A B to within
a multiplier.
factors through
dom A /ker A .
ts data well.
holds because of B .
is as a matter of de nition
\A ."
is called the letter \A ."
is commensurate to/with B .
is conceived of as a bull head.
is de ned by declaring \A ."
is dependent on 2A .
is designated as A .
is devoted to formulating B .
is disjoint from A 0 .
is elementarily equivalent
to A .

is full in A .
is given the symbol A .
is homeomorphic with/to A .
is in {A }.
is included in A ∪ {A }.
is independent of B .
is referred to as A .
is said to be capital.
is tantamount to A .
is unique up to an
in nitesimal.
A is, as a matter of de nition,
a symbol.
A is, as asserted, a letter.
A itself is a letter.
A possesses/enjoys property B ;
a property of C holds for A .
A prefers to integrate rather
than di erentiate.
A presumes to be A -like.
A renders all of B continuous.
A reminds us of B .
A signi es the letter A .
A substantiates B .
A typi es a letter.
A 's every subset is in P (A ).
A 's method is surpassed by that
of B .
A , as well as B , is a capital.
A , with B /in addition to B ,
looks ne.
A 0 is a token of the dual of A .
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

134
A 0 reads: A prime.
A (x) changes with x.
A (x) holds for all x.
A := A for notational
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

simplicity.
= 0 and so A 6= 1.
= 0 and still A 6= 1.
= 0 but A 6= 1 as yet.
= 0 but A 6= 1 nonetheless.
= 0 but then A 6= 1.
= 0 has one and only one
solution.
= 0; if not: A 6= 0.
= 0; if so, A 2 = 0.
= 1 contradicts A = 0. A = 0
is contradicted by A = 1.
= 1 or A = 0 according as
A 2 = 1 or A 2 = 0.
= A amounts to A 2 = A 2 .
= A as is usual with equality.
= A in principle: A comes of
B doing C .
= A unless otherwise stated.
= A unless the contrary is
stated.
= A , which is what we need.
= A with probability one.
= A ; so nothing is to be
proved.
= A . Proof: Immediate.
= A . Proof: Obvious.
= A . Proof: Straightforward.
= A . Proof: Trivial.
= {A }. On the contrary,
A 6= {A }.
· 12 contains A · 2, A · 3, A · 4
and A · 6.

Appendix 2
consists of A and the
elements of A .
A ∪ {A } contains A .
A ∈ {A } irrespective of whether
or not B ∈ {A }.
A ∈ {A }. Reason:
B ∈ {A } ↔ B = A .
A ∈ {A }. For, B ∈ {A }
implies B = A .
A ≤ A with equality holding i
A =A.
A = B is the condition that A
be B .
A ≤ B ≤ C , the second
inequality following from
(1.1).
A 6= 1 but A , however, vanishes.
A 6= A . Counterexample: 1 = 1.
A 6= 0, but it may fail in general.
A 7→ A , A ∈ B , is the identity
indexing of B .
A → B . The converse is the
reverse implication B → A .
A 2 divides by A .
¬B holds, for ¬A .
{A } is obviously nonempty; in
symbols, {A } 6= ∅.
{A } is prepared to become A .
{A } prompts A being a set.
{A } = {A } is plain and
immediate from A = A .
{A } = {{A }} abuses the
language.
{A } = {{A }} is a notational
juggling.
{A } \ A is disjoint from A .
A ∪ {A }

Mottoes, Dicta, and Cliches
before e except after c, or when
sounded like \ay" as in
\neighbor" or \weigh."
|A | is termed the modulus of A .
A necessary and sucient
condition that A 2 be 0 is
that A be 0.
Absence is a state; lack implies
shortage.
Acquire uent knowledge of
English.
Active ed-participles are rarely
used in premodi cation
(exception: adverbially
modi ed).
Acute: e.
Ad (1.1): Apply Theorem 2.1.
Adduce reasons and examples.
Adhere to principle.
Adherent points produce
a closure.
Adjective phrases with
a complement cannot be
preposed.
Admiration for excellence is
welcome.
Admit that A implies B .
Adopt useful constructions.
After A we are left with B .
All goes before a determiner,
whereas whole, after.
All good things come to an end.
All that remains is to prove (5.2).
Also, as well, too are not used in
negative sentences.
Alterations are minor.
i

135
An error may suggest a moral
wrong; a mistake infers only
misjudgment.
Analysis means breaking up of
a whole into its parts to nd
out their nature.
Applied Mathematics Is Bad
Mathematics.
Apposition tends to restrict.
Approximate to functions.
Argue the toss if necessary.
Arguments fail.
As sometimes implies inversion
in formal texts.
As (was) mentioned, (5.2) is an
exercise.
As/how/so/too + adjective +
a/an noun is normal in
a formal style.
As/what/while, introducing
background future situation,
are used in the Present.
Assume A and begin to sum.
Asymptotics and Dynamics are
sciences.
At ease!
At times time is up.
Attain an optimum.
Attract and inform.
Augment your vocabulary and
enhance your style.
Avoid modifying modi ers.
Battle against provincialism.
Be grateful for advice.
Be interested in and zealous for
mathematics.
Be obliged to ancestors.

136
Be on your mettle while
translating.
Be prepared to hardships.
Be simple by being concrete.
Be staunch.
Before launching into proofs,
motivations are appropriate.
Before proving, to state is in
order.
Best speakers are the best
nonspeakers.
Beware of elephants and
sycophants.
Beyond all doubt you are cute.
Blob: •.
Books, articles, and papers (are
written) by the authors.
Braces: { }.
Brackets: [ ].
Breve: x.
By (1.1) we may, and shall,
choose A .
By de nition, 1 ≤ 2.
By induction on k, k + 1 ≥ k.
By means of series expansion,
nd A .
By method and with tools.
By this followed by that, nd A .
Care must be exercised.
Carry out, conduct, perform, and
run experiments on
translating.
Cedilla: o.
Champion new ideas.
Changes are omnipresent.
Check limit cases.
Choose an A for which B .
Circum ex: e^.

Appendix 2
Clear up a misunderstanding.
Collect dicta/terms and evaluate
the integral.
Combine A and B .
Compare integration with
di erentiation.
Complications set in.
Compromise among utility,
clarity, clumsiness, and
absolute precision.
Conception → concept → notion.
Conditions are imposed on A for
B to equal C .
Conform to and comply with
conditions.
Congratulate on occasions.
Constants can assume arbitrary
values.
Construe how to construct.
Continuity appertains to
topology.
Contribute towards progress.
Convenience dictates notation.
Cope with tasks.
Corroborate your statements.
Credo, quia absurdum.
Deal with, tackle, handle,
address, and settle problems.
De ne recursively or by
recursion.
Delegate some proof to exercises.
Deliver your lecture impromptu.
Denote A by A .
Derive corollaries from theorems.
Derive immediate consequences.
Describe a circle on the board.
Describe how to expand.
Despite A observe that B = 1.

Mottoes, Dicta, and Cliches
Destroy obstacles to progress.
Details are left to the reader.
Determine what axioms imply.
Dirac's measure supported at x,
δx .
Discard k's and relabel m's.
Discriminate between the two
cases.
Discuss the commensurability of
topologies.
Discussion will follow the
theorem.
Dispose of truisms and
redundant assumption.
Distinguish A from B .
Divide and conquer.
Dogmatism retards progress.
Do not capitalize \to."
Dot i's and cross t's.
Doubt whether A = B and do
not doubt that A = A .
Doubtless is an adverb.
Draw attention to essentials.
Drop down to a subsequence, if
necessary.
Each A and each B is C .
Economics is a science about
economies.
Edit irrelevancy out.
Elaborate on details.
Elucidate mysteries.
Emend your translation.
Emphasize the gist of your
argument.
Employ notions and concepts.
Emulate best authors.
Enable A to di er from B .

137
End a sentence with 1, 3, or 4
periods.
Endow spaces with norms.
Enlarge \a" so as to make it
\A ."
Enlighten, not proselyte.
Enough functionals to
separate/distinguish points.
Enough is enough.
Enter a passage vs. enter into
an agreement/a discussion.
E pluribus unum.
Err on the side of hesitation.
Eschew verbosity and prolixity.
Estimate how to locate roots.
Estimates:
make/submit/improve/
sharpen/tighten them.
Every A and every B is C .
Evince skill.
Examples conduce towards
comprehension/belong in
better places.
Excel bounds.
Exclude unidiomatic usage.
Exemplify the notations
involved.
Exercise common sense.
Expand fundamentals/functions
in series.
Express terms in nondimensional
form.

Eclat
means a conspicuous
success.
Familiarity breeds acceptance.
Fight sloth.
Fill in details.
Find words to describe ideas.

138
First A . Then B .
First. Second.... Then. Next.
Last.
Firstly A . Secondly B .
Fix S ; check T .
Flat: [.
Flunk wiseacres and smart
alecks.
For if A = 1, then A 6= 0.
For-clauses never come at the
beginning of a sentence.
Formulate by yourself.
Functions assume and take
values.
Gain in experience.
Garner up witticisms.
Get deeper results with sharper
tools.
Get rid of triteness.
Given A , nd B .
Good is the opposite of bad.
Well is the opposite of ill.
Ground your arguments on
proofs.
Hark and lo!
Have and lack properties.
Have no diculties in
understanding.
Heighten your IQ.
Hieroglyphics is a pictorial
system of writing.
Hoaxes belong in better places.
Hope for the best.
How long? | For a week.
When? | During a week.
Hypotheses non ngo.
Idealization provides for illimited
numbers.

Appendix 2
If A borrows from B then B
lends to A .
If A 6= B were false then A
would equal B .
If no an ambiguity is possible
write A instead of B .
In formal writing it is better to
avoid get.
In contradistinction to the earlier
case, we de ne A .
Induct on dimension.
Inversion requires discretion.
Integral epitomizes functional.
Integrate by parts.
Interchange the order of
summation.
It is common for A to do B .
It is incumbent on you to conceal
nothing.
It is not worth my while to
try A .
It is not worthwhile trying A .
It is sucient for A that A be
A.
It is typical of an occasional
translator to indulge in
superstitions.
It seems nice to A .
It seems that A = B .
It seems to A to be B .
It seems to become A .
It suces to use Simple Tenses.
It suces to show that A = A .
It transpires that the criticism of
in nitesimal was excessive.
Justify claims.
Know right from wrong.

Mottoes, Dicta, and Cliches
Lacking this, that can fail.
Lay tiles on surfaces.
Laymen form a laity.
Learn verb patterns by rote.
Less is more.
Lest means in order that ... not.
Let A stand for B .
Literati encompass
mathematicians.
Live and learn!
Make attempts at generality.
Make certain of leaving no stones
unturned.
Mark/label A with B .
Mathematics is invalidated by
solecisms.
Mathematicians have a penchant
for generalization.
Mathematics is attracting nay
enthralling.
Meet conditions, challenges, etc.
Misconceptions are galore.
Misprints, although venial, are
vexations.
Misuse vexes readers.
Mollify and truncate.
Most laws are negative.
Multiplication is distributive
over addition.
Must is never in the Past.
Neglect A as compared with
unity.
Never buy a pig in a poke.
Never is a long word.
Never split in nitives.
Never use \last" for \preceding."
No A and no B is C .
Noblesse oblige.

139
Nobody can have something for
nothing.
Nothing left but accept.
Notwithstanding A realize that
B = 1.
Observe A if it is pertinent.
Obtain from (1.1) that A
equals A .
Obviate fuss.
Omit Case 1.
On condition (that) normally
requires a human agent.
Once means a single occasion in
the past.
One conjunction is enough for
two sentences.
One \Future" suces for clause
subordination.
Only precedes the word it
modi es.
On your marks! Get set! Go!
Opportunities arise.
Opposite is stronger than
contrary.
Opt for integrating rather than
summing.
Opt to verify rather than believe.
Order P (R) by reverse inclusion.
Out of sight, out of mind.
Outline proofs in draft.
Override the veto.
Oversights occur.
P is posterior to O .
P is prior to Q and R .
Parallelism is an equivalence.
Parentheses: ( ).
Parity of permutations
Part is often used without a.

140
Pathos brings sadness; bathos
means false pathos or
descent from the grand to
the trivial.
Permit canceling both sides.
Peruse and scan nal versions.
Plan for success.
Pleonasm is ridiculous.
Plot graphs and gures.
Points constitute a set.
Pose questions and settle
hypotheses in the
armative.
Positively can modify a strongly
negative word.
Possess is never derogatory.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc.
Practice checking proofs.
Praxis is very formal to drill.
Prefer to multiply rather than
sum.
Prefer whether to if whenever
possible.
Prejudice warps the mind.
Prepare for blunders.
Prevent A from making fuss.
Problems are the heart of
Mathematics.
Problems crop up.
Proceed by contradiction.
Projections are idempotents.
Projectors are optical devices.
Proofs go through.
Prove and ask.
Proven is common in general
American usage.
Prove that A holds; thus
disprove the negation.

Appendix 2
Precis are welcome.
Publish or perish.
Pull-back and push-forward.
Put open questions to readers.
Quibbling is not the panacea.
Quote without haste.
Raise important issues for
the reader's consideration.
Rather than is usually followed
by in nitive without to.
Reach decisions on problems.
Recipes for precepts.
Recover the functions up to
a constant.
Recto pages take odd folios;
verso pages take even folios.
Reject trivia and minutiae.
Relax conditions.
Release the assumption.
Remark on theorems.
Remind A how to do B .
Remove ambiguities.
Repeat eigenvalues according to
multiplicity.
Rescind and revoke contradicting
axioms.
Resist using \as" instead of
\while" and \because."
Resort to de nitions.
Reversal is the process of
reversing.
Reverse no decision.
Right face! Left face! Face
about!
Rotate axes through an angle.
Safeguard your equanimity.
Satisfaction and grati cation.

Mottoes, Dicta, and Cliches
Secularize and scientize.
Seek for connotative terms.
Select to your convenience.
Separate the meaningful from
the meaningless.
Sequence is not in common
parlance.
Series in z with coecients
from/in X .
Set A = 1; determine A 2 .
Set about the proof with this
result available.
Set theory forms a rationale
behind/for analysis.
Set, ¬­®¦¥á⢮, ensemble,
Menge, and kvutza.
Sharp: #.
Shift the stress from A to B .
Shun logodaedaly.
Simplify exposition.
Simplism is unrewarding.
Since A , it follows that B .
Since A , we have B .
Since A is commutative,
so is A 2 .
Since A ; therefore, B .
Since A = 2; A 2 = 4.
Singular countable nouns require
nonempty determiners.
Skip inessentials.
Slightly generalize if need be.
Small mistakes are slips or
oversights.
Smattering of English is
a popular xation.
Solutions obey equations.
Solve f (x) = 0 for x in full
generality.

141
Speak in conundrums elsewhere.
Specialize to particular cases.
Spell \English" vs. the \English
spell."
Start is appropriate to what is
animated.
State theorems in words.
Status relates to condition;
statute, to law.
Stop casting pearls before swine.
Stop vilifying in nitesimals.
Straightedge and compass are
the Euclidean tools.
Stupidity is obnoxious.
Submit, make, and give
estimates.
Subsume equivalences in the
class of preorders.
Subtleties are left to
connoisseurs.
Suggest that A = 1; obtain B .
Sum over states/indices.
Summands and sum;
multiplicands, factors, and
product; dividend and
divisor; quotient, minuend
and subtrahend.
Summarize and draw
conclusions.
Supplementary angles make π.
Complementary angles
make π/2.
Suppose A ; prove B .
Suppose not/otherwise/to the
contrary.
Suppose, towards/for
a contradiction, that 1 6= 0.

142
Take counsel with council
members.
Take inventory at times.
Take nothing on faith.
Terminate in time.
That is used as a proform for
something shapeless and for
mass nouns.
The constant function one is
denoted by 1.
The ux from body 1 to body 2
is zero.
The idea of each of the two is
not expressed by either.
The In nite (Being) is the God.
The obverse of love is hate.
The one of these ones/those ones
is solecistic.
The proof is complete/ nished/
over/ended/results/ensues
/follows/comes after/comes
next.
The remainder follows on the
appeal to (1).
The resurrection of in nitesimal
is an object lesson against
vissionarism.
The side BC subtends the
angle A .
The unwonted are unwanted.
The verb is a pivot of a sentence.
Theorem A involves Premise B .
Theorems continue to hold in
their entirety.
There is an f depending on X .
There is a commutative diagram
as below.

Appendix 2
There is nothing left (for us) to
prove.
There is nothing left to proof.
There is not enough clarity.
There is nothing further to
prove.
There is nothing left unproven.
There is nothing to be proved.
There is nothing to prove.
There is no point/use/sense in
avoiding in nitesimals.
There is some x (or another).
Therefore, wherefore imply the
exactness of reasoning.
Accordingly, consequently
are less formal; so and then
are conversational in tone.
Those is preferred to the ones in
formal writing.
Thus Spake Zarathustra.
Thus, 1 = 0; a contradiction.
Tilt at wrongs and windmills.
Titles require upper-case letters.
To run overtime is rude.
Towards this end, put A = 0.
Treat problems under suitable
assumptions.
Trees have nodes.
Truncate/terminate the sequence
at n := N .
Umlaut: u.
Understand that A = 1, and
set B .
Unscienti c means \slovenly
as regards science."
Update, recast, and modernize.
Use A , and show that B = 1.
Use mnemonic notation.

Mottoes, Dicta, and Cliches
Use, hold, and follow notation
and conventions.
Usus versus casus.
Vagaries are to be expelled.
Vary implies repeatedness.
Vary in size and opinions.
Verbiage relates to writing
as verbosity to speech.
Very goes with adjectives but
never with comparatives;
much prefers participles..
Watch A , and explain that
B = 1.
We have A because of A .
Weaken stringent requirements.
Well may serve as adverb; Good
as adverb is not for you.
Write embed/enquire/etc.
instead of
imbed/inquire/etc.
\A lot of" is worse than \many"
in formal writing.
\A produces {A }" is equivalent
to \{A } is produced by A ."
\A " turns out to be a letter.
\Although" is a conjunction
whereas \despite" is
a preposition.
\Any one" means whichever you
choose.
\Anyone" means anybody.
\Any way" means \any manner."
\Anyway" means \at all events."
\Also" goes with verbs.
\A number of" requires plural
forms.
\As" may serve as \which fact."

143
\Assay the impossible" and
\essay to peruse" are very
formal and even archaic.
\At" relates to dimension 0.
\Be" is the only copula allowing
an adverbial
as complementation.
\Because" after a negative is
ambiguous; use \since."
\Besides" has a blend of
afterthought.
\Bilinear" means linear in each
of the two variables.
\Both" emphasizes \twoness."
\Cornucopia" stand for \cornu
copiae" or \horn of plenty."
\Don't" is worse than \do not"
in formal writing.
\Each other"(and \one another")
should serve as objects of
verbs and propositions.
\E ect is `to bring about',
`to accomplish'; a ect is
`to produce an e ect on'."
(E. Partridge)
\Every" never refers to two.
\Every" puts into group; \each"
separates.
\Fulsome" is understood in
a derogatory sense.
\How", \where", \when", and
\why" form a normal string
of adverbials.
\If it was so, it might be; If it
were so, it would be; And
as it isn't, it ain't. That's
logic." (L. Carrol)

144

Appendix 2

\In order that" must be followed
by \may" or \might" or
subjunctive and never by
\can" or \could."
\In" goes with seasons, months,
and large towns.
\In" relates to dimensions 2
and 3.
\In some contexts, meaning|as
opposed to the strict
requirements of grammar or
syntax|governs

subject-verb
agreement." (B. Garner)

\More than one" is singular.
\Most" means \very" in the very
formal writing style.
\On account of" A is usually
worse than \because of" A .
\On" relates to dimension 3.
\Same" is always better with
\the."
\Similarly to/as" is
controversial. Use \in much
the same way as."
\So + [f]" is less formal than \in
order that + [f]."
\Such a/an + noun" usually
requires gradeability.
\Such a/an + adjective + noun"
is used for emphasis.

\The only idiomatic use of
mostly is for the most part."
(H. Fowler)
\Then" is not a conjunction.
\The same as" can be followed
by a noun group, a pronoun,
an adjunct, or a clause.
\Translations (like wives) are
seldom faithful if they are in
the least attractive."
(R. Campbell)
\Understandable" is mainly for
behavior.
\utilize, utilization are, 99
times out of 100, much
inferior to use, v. and n.; the
one other time, it is merely
inferior." (E. Partridge)
\Versed in analysis" means
di ers Riemann from
Lebesgue.
\When adverbs of manner
(which say how something is
done) go in mid-position,
they are normally put after
all auxiliary verbs."
(M. Swan)
\Which," if interrogative, relates
to a limited group.
\What" deals with every group.

Appendix 3
Miscellany
abscissa of regularity
absorbing set
absorptance vs. absorptivity
absorption edge
Achilles and Tortoise
acoustic inertance
activity analysis
acute angle
ad hoc
addendum or note added in proof
adeles and ideles
adjacement matrix
adjoint Hilbert space
aerial array
a fortiori
agent of type 1
aggregate endowment
aliases
All-America [adj.] vs.
All-American [n.]
all but a nite number
all its derivatives
alloy vs. blending
alternating group of degree n
altogether vs. in the altogether
amalgam vs. mixture
amenable group
ample bundle
analog and analogy
analog simulation
analytic set
analytically thin set

antsatz of a solution
apertures and stops
apogee and perigee
a posteriori distribution
approximate identity in
an algebra
a priori estimate
Archimedean unit
arcwise connected space
Argand diagram
Artian module
ascending chain condition
asymptotic expansion/behavior
and asymptote
at high temperature/
constant pressure
at most nitely many k's
at stages/moments vs. in
places/steps; on sides/hands
at this juncture
atled
autocephalous and autonomous
churches
autoregressive process
avalanche breakdown
backward and forward di erences
balayage principle
ball with center x and radius r
band of a K -space
bang-bang principle
bar-theorem

146
barrel
barycentric re nement
base for a neighborhood
system/of a cylinder
basic solution
basis for a Banach space
Bayesian approach
Bhagavat Gita
bidiagonal, tridigonal vs.
two-diagonal, three-diagonal
bifurcation set
bigoted opinions of ε-δ -ism
binumeration
Biot and Savar's law
bipolar relative to a pairing
Boolean functions
Boolean-valued analysis
bordered surface
bornivorous sequence
bound variable
boundary of a manifold
bounded/limited/restricted
quanti er
box-product topology
bra-vector
bracket product
braid group
branch and bound methods
branched minimal surface
branching process
bremsstrahlung
Brobdingnag and Lilliput
bubbly slug ow
buckling factor
budget constraint
bulk viscosity
bundle of homomorphisms
burn-out crisis

Appendix 3
by dint of A
by force of A
by means of A
by order of A
by reason of A
by the aid of A
by way of A
by/with the help of A
canonical projection
cap product
capacitable set
capacitatory mass distribution
capacity
capillary wave
caps and faces
carte blanche
Cartesian coordinates/product
casual vs. causal
casus irreducibilis
catastrophe theory
categories admitting limits
celestial mechanics
cellular cohomology theory
center of gravity/of a group/
of a pencil of hyperplanes
chain rule
change-of-variable formula
Charles's or Gay{Lussac's law
Chebyshev Equioscillation
Theorem
Chinese Remainder Theorem
choice function
chunk of a set
circular annulus of width a
circumcision
clan
Clebsh{Gordan expansion
clopen set

Miscellany
closed-loop and open-loop
closedness
closeness of a packing
closure
cluster point
cnoidal and solitary waves
code for A
co-echelon space
coarser lter
cobordism and concordance
coercive operator
cognoscibility of the world
collectionwise Hausdor space
combing a braid
commodity-price duality
compact-open topology
compatible with operations
compendious exposition
complanar vector
complementary set
complemented subspace
complete integrability/solution
completion of a uniform space
composite function
compound Poisson process
compressible uid
concircularly at space
conditional solution/mean
conditionally complete lattice
con dence/ ducial interval
conformality vs. conformity
conjugate space/operator
connection
connectives
conservation of mass and energy
constant width
constraint quali cation
constructible set

147
constructive ordinals
consumption bundle
context and contents
contour of integration
contraction principle
contracting or nonexpansive
mapping
controls
convergence in measure/
in pth mean
converse class/theorem
conversion of mankind
convex hull
coordinates with respect to
a basis
corona problem
correction factor to a coecient
correlogram
coset map/canonical projection
Coulomb force
countable model
counting function
Cramer rule
Cramer{Rao inequality
credo, creed, and credendum
crisp set vs. fuzzy set
Critique of Pure Reason
crookedness of a knot
cross product/section
cubic close packing
cul-de-sac
cup product
current algebra
curriculum vitae
curve of pursuit
cushioned re nement
cusp singularity
cut and glue method

148
cuto
cutset
cycle index
cyclic vector
cyclide of Dupin
cycloid
damping ratio
dashing principle
data analysis/encryption
Decalog or the Ten
Commandments
deep water wave
defect of a meromorphic function
de ciency index of an operator
de niendum et de niens
de ning relations
de nite quadratic form
degeneracy index
degenerate kernel
degree of a mapping/of an
algebraic variety/of
recursive unsolvability/of
rami cation of a branch
point
delay-di erential equation
deleted space
denumerable set
derivation tree
derivatives and primitive
functions
derived function
descents and ascents
desideratum
determined system
developable space
dew point
dextral and sinistral
diagrammatic representation

Appendix 3
dictum de omni
di erence-di erential equation
diculties in formulation
di raction grating
Diophantine equations
direct product
directed family
disk algebra
dissection and valuations
distance between x and y
distinct elements
ditto
diurnal aberration
divergent double series
dogma, doctrine, and tenet
dominant integral form
Dominated Ergodic Theorem
dormant idea
double sequence
dual space
duality between X and X 0
dummy index
duo-trio test
Dupin indicatrix
duxial set
ecart
eddy current/velocity
Edge-of-the-Wedge Theorem
eciency, e ectiveness, and
ecacy
eciency frontier
eigenvalue
Einstein summation convention
elemental truths and elementary
particles
ellipse
ellipsis
ellipsoid of revolution

Miscellany
embedding and immersion
empty set
energy integral
entourage
entries, members, components,
or terms of a sequence
entry of/in a matrix
enumeration of a code
enveloping von Neumann algebra
epigraph
Epiphany, Easter, and Whitsun
Epstein zeta function
equalizer
equally-spaced points
equations in operators for x
equilateral, isosceles, and right
triangles
equilibrium state
Eratosphenes sieve
Erlangen program
erratum
error detecting/estimate
Escher tile
et alia/et al.
et alii/et al.
et cetera/etc.
etale extension and Henselization
Euclid axiom
Euclidean algorithm
Euler characteristic
ex falso quod libet
exave
excess demand
exchange economy
exegetics
exempli gratia
existence theorem
existential quanti er

149
exit time
exotic sphere
expansion as t → ∞ of f
expansion of a vector in a basis
expansive vs. expensive
explanandum et explanans
expose
extended real axis
extension by 0 of f to X
extension to/onto all/the whole
of X
exterior product of di erential
forms
external law of composition
extremal quasiconformal
mapping
extreme point
faces of alcoves
factor group
failure of approximation
faithful linear representation
fallacy of ratiocination
fan shape
fast breeder reactor/Fourier
transform
feasible solution
ber bundle vs. foliation
bered manifold
bration
ctitious state
delity criterion
ducial distribution
lter on/over a set
ne topology
ner lter
nite-valued function
nitistic credenda
rst splitting time

150
xation on idioms
xed-point-free mapping
xed-point theorem
abby sheaf
ag manifold
at A -module
oating point
ows in networks
ux density
fold, cusp, swallow-tail, butter y,
and umbilic
for lack of A
for the purpose of A
forcefull argument and forcible
entry
fractal
frame of a bundle
Fredholm alternative
free group/lattice on/with m
generators
Freiheitssatz
Frenet frame
Froude number
fully normal space
functionally-distinguishable
points
functions periodic in x/
of the same period π/
with/of compact support
fuzzy set
Gauss forward interpolation
formula
Gauss integral
Gaussian curvature
general solution
generic property
genus of a variety
germ of an analytic function

Appendix 3
ghosts of departed quantities
gluons
goodness-of- t
graded module
grazing ray
great circle (of a sphere)
halting time
handlebodies and surgery
Hauptsatz
Hauptvermutung
hazard rate
heads and tails
Heisenberg uncertainty relation
Henselian rings
Hermitian operator
Hilbert Nullstellensatz
Hilbertian seminorm
hidden variables
hierarchy
high-precision computation
hitting time
hold almost everywhere
holohedry
holomorphic hull
holonomy
horned sphere
hull-kernel topology
hyperbolas and hyperbole
hypercritical and hypocritical
hypograph
id est
ideas behind the proof
ignorabimus
ill-conditioned matrix
ill-posed problem
imbroglio, quandary, and
predicament

Miscellany
immersion
impervious to perturbation
Implicit Function Theorem
in a solid state
in accordance with A
in addition to A
in agreement with A
in answer to A
in briefer words vs. lengthily
in case of A
in cause of A
in combination with A
in compliance with A
in conformity with A
in conjugation with A
in connection with A
in consequence of A
in consideration of A
in contrast to/with A
in contradistinction to A
in default of A
in essence
in exchange for A
in favor of A
in honor of A
in juxtaposition with A
in line with A
in memory of A
in need of A
in place of A
in preparation of A
in proposition to A
in quest of A
in recognition of A
in regard to A
in relation to A
in respect to A
in response to A

151
in return to/for A
in search of A
in statu quo and the status quo
in such a way that A holds
in support of A
in the course of A
in the case of A (considering A )
in the event of/that
in the form of A
in the main
in the matter of A
in this instance/event
in this stage of reasoning
in token of respect
in toto
inaccessible cardinal
incipient decay
incompressible uid
independent increments
index librorum phohibitorum
indices modulo p
induced topology
inductive/induction
hypothesis/base
inequalities in N variables
inertial reference frame
inevitable, illuminating, deep,
relevant, responsive, and
timely mathematics
inferior/superior in rank
ingoing subspace
initial object
input-output analysis
inradius and outradius
inscribed, enscribed, and
circumscribed circles
instances of general facts
integer programming

152
integrals, intergrands, and
integrators
interference fringes
intertwining operator
interval of absolute stability
inverse problems
inversion formula
ipso facto
irrefutable formula
irreversible process
isosceles triangle on base a
iterated logarithm law
Iwasawa decomposition
jet propulsion
jets and currents
joins and meets
joint distribution/spectrum
jointly/separately continuous
jump at a point
jumping to a conclusion
juxtaposition and concatenation
Kantian antinomies
Kegel function
kenosis
ket-vector
Killing form
killing time
Kleinian group
knots and links
kurtosis
labors of Sisyphus
laconic, succinct, terse, or
lapidary
lagged variables
lapsus
latent heat
Latin square

Appendix 3
lattice gauge theorem
law of excluded middle
layer
least-action principle
least squares method
left-hand side
leftmost and rightmost terms
legend of a map
level sets
libertarian vs. libertine
Lichtenberg gures
life time
likelihood ratio test
limit in norm/inferior or
lower/superior or upper
Lissajous' gures
lituus
local ring
locally integrable
locking e ect
locus
log-linear analysis
lowest common denominator
main diagonal
maladroit malfunctions
manifold without boundary
many-valued logic
Markov chains
Markovian equation
mathesis universalis
maximal ow, minimal cut
meager set
mean unbiased estimator
Mengerlehre
mesh of a covering
metric on/for the set
Minkowski functionals or gauges
minor and major axes

Miscellany
misoneism
model theory versus fashion
business
modular law
module
modulo
modulus
modus ponens
moire pattern
molli ers, truncators, and
regularizations
moment of momentum
moment problem
momentum phase space
monad
monotone operator
monotonic function
Mossbauer e ect
multi-index
multigrid methods
multilinear form/pro t
multinomial logit models
mutatis mutandis
myopia, impatience, or order
continuity
n-tuple
naive set theory
nat
Nativity of Christ or Christmas
natural moving frame
necessity and suciency
negation
negentropy
nescience vs. omniscience
nested intervals
net in a set
net premium
Newton rst law

153
Newtonian mechanics
next Monday vs. the next
chapter
nexus
nodal point
noisy channel
nolens volens
non-Bayesian approach
nondimensional conductance
nonperturbative phenomena
normal form of a singularity
normed space
notation
notations suggestive of Latin
origin
noughts and crosses or tic tac toe
nowhere dense set
nozzle valve
nth term
nuclear space
null space
nullity of a linear operator
numeration
numerator and denominator
nutation
oblate spheroidal coordinates
oblique circular cone
observability and controllability
obstruction class
obtuse angle
Ockham's/Occam's razor
odds and ends
oecumenical or general councils
on grounds of A
on the basis of A
on the ground of A
on the occasion of A
on the strength of A

154
on the whole vs. in particular
one-sided surface
operator and transformers
opus operatorum
oracles
original sin/the Fall
Origin of Species
orthodoxy vs. heresies
orthogonal complement
oscillating series
osculating plane
ossi ed superstitions of ε-δ -ism
outgoing subspace
overdetermined system
overlapping generations model
overspill
owing to A
packed beds
packing and covering
Palais{Smale condition
Paley{Wiener Theorem
panem et circenses
papal infallibility
papers by the author
parabolas and parables
Paradise Lost
parallel and semiparallel strips
parity transformation
partial di erentiation/
function/sum
partially ordered space
particular solution
partition of unity subordinate to
a covering
passage to the limit
past cone
path integral
pattern and speech recognition

Appendix 3
payo function
peak function
permutations and combinations
phase shift
pivot
planar curvilinear coordinates
plane domain
plank
plates, disks, and membranes
pointed topological space
Pointwise Ergodic Theorem
polynomial in z
polytopes and polyhedra
poset
posit/postulate A /take A for
granted
power of a with exponent x
predecessors and successors
predicate calculus
prediction theory
predictive distribution
preferences in an economy
pre x
prenex normal form
presheaf on a site
price for an allocation
primary ring/condition
prime formula
principle of least action/of
optimality
prodigal son and prodigy
professorate vs. professorship
prolate spheroidal coordinates
proliferation of errors
prolongation of a solution/
of a geodesic
proof tableau
property held jointly by two sets

Miscellany
pull back and push forward
pullback of a di erential form
pure point spectrum
purely discontinuous distribution
putative foundation of analysis
Pythagorean/Pythagoras
Theorem
quadratic form in
several/in nitely many
variables
quadratic programming/form
quadric cone
quadrivium
quark con nement
quermassintegral
queuing theory
quotient set of X by ∼
radioactive waste
random sample/variables of
mean 0 and variance 1
/walk (by spheres)
randomized test
range of a mapping/of statistic
data
rank of a matrix
rank-one operator
Rankine{Hygoniot relation
ranking and selection
ratio of the circumference of
a circle to its diameter
reals, rationals, naturals, and
complexes
reciprocal equation
reciprocity law/of annihilators
rectangular parallelepiped
recti able curve
rectilinear complex/propagation

155
recurrence formulas
recurrent point
recursive function
redshift
refutable formula
regularity up to the boundary
relatively norm compact set
relativity
relativization
remainder and residue
remainder in Taylor's formula
removable singularity
Renaissance
render assumptions/conditions/
circumstances
renumerate vs. remunerate
repair the omission
repeated integral
replacement
replica
replication
research into the unknown
residual spectrum
Residue Theorem
resolution of identity/
of singularities
resolvent equation/of a linear
operator
resource allocation
restatement of a claim
restricted holonomy group
resume
retail and wholesale
revealed preference relation
Revelation of St. John
the Divine, the Apocalypse
reverse order
reversed process

156
review vs. revue
right angle
right-hand side
rigid body
rigidity theorem
robust estimation
roentgen or rontgen
rolling without slipping
rooms and passages
root subspace
roots of unity
rotation of A /by/through π/2
about the axis x
roundo error
routine considerations
Rybaiyat of Omar Khayyam
ruin probability
rule of inference
ruled surface
ruler and compass
saddle/jump/saltation point
sampling distribution
satisfaction and grati cation
scalar product
scale parameter
scaling method/factor
scattered set
schism
schlieren method
scholar of the highest/middling
attainments
Schwarschild radius
Scientia scientiarium
scratch hardness
screw dislocation/motion
Second coming
secondary diagonal
Selberg sieve

Appendix 3
selection rule/function
sense-preserving map
separable space
separated uniform space
separation theorem/axioms
sequential decision rule
sequentially compact space
series-parallel connection
Sermon on the Mount
serving, full, or pure subgroup
sesquilinear form
set furnished with a metric
set-theoretic stance
shallow water wave
share set
sharp estimate
sheaf associated with a presheaf
sheaf of germs of smooth
functions
shear stress
sheets of a hyperboloid vs.
nappes of a cone
shift operator
shock wave
short exact sequence
shunt
side e ects/conditions
sieve method
sign test
signed measure
simplex tableau
simulation and numerical
modeling
sine qua non
singleton
skew product/ eld
skimming the surface
skin-friction drag

Miscellany
slack variable
slant product
slender body theory
slice
sliding vector
slit domain
slot vs. slits
small sample
smashing/collapsing/shrinking
a space to a point
smoothness required of
a (boundaryless) manifold
socle of a module
Soddy and Fajans' rule
solid body
solubility
solution operator/
by quadrature/to equations/
in integers
solvability
solving a triangle
source coding theory
space of strain and stress
span of a set
speci ed heat capacity
sphere geometry
spherical geometry
spin
spin quantum number
spinor group
spline interpolation
square of side a
stance vs. stanza
steam point
sti ness ratio
stopping rule
straight angle

157
straightforward and tedious
computations
strange attractor
stress
stretched string
strict implication/morphism
strictly convex function
strings and superstrings
strong convergence/dual space
strongly elliptic
operator/exposed
point/inaccessible cardinal
structure carried by a set
subnet
subnexus
sum of a series
summable by Abel's method
supplementary angle
surd
surface energy/tension
surgery obstructions
survey vs. review and revue
survival of the ttest
sweeping-out process
symmetry breaking
synchronous clocks
synergism
system of notations for ordinals
systems analysis/theory
syzygy theory
tail lter
taking limits, by passage to the
limit, or by a limiting
argument
tally with, agree with, and
correspond to
tautochrone
tautology

158
tempered distribution
term in predicate logic/
of a language/of a series
tertium non datur
tessellations and tilings
test function
the last term (in a ( nite) series)
vs. the latest news
theorem of coding
theorem of Tauberian type
Theorema Egregium
theory of errors
thermocouple
theta function
thick- lm and thin- lm circuits
thickness of an oval
three-body problem
threshold Jacobi method
tieset
tight family of measures
tightness
time sharing
timelike curve
to and fro; neither and thither
tolerance and con dence regions
topology on/for X
topos
torquemeter
torsion modules
torus
totally bounded set
trace space
transducer vs. trunsductor
transfer principle
transient Levy process
transverse foliation/
mass/vibrations
trapezo-rombic dodecahedron

Appendix 3
trellis code
tribe
trivium
truncation function/error
truth and satisfaction of intellect
truth table
tuning fork
turn-pike theorem
twin paradox
twisted and skew group rings
two-bin system
ubiquitous set
ultimate boundedness
ultimate, penultimate, and
antepenultimate
ultranet
unbiasedness
uncertainty principle
uncompleted vs. incomplete
uncountable set
unde ned concept
under ow
underlying space
undotted index
unfolding
unfortunate nomenclature
unicity/uniqueness theorem
uni ed eld theorem
uniformly most powerful test
unilateral constraints
uniqueness theorem
unit ball/cell/cost
unity element and unitization
universal cover vs. open covering
universal quanti er/set
unordered pair
unsteady ow

Miscellany
up to equivalence/isomorphism
upcrossings
uranium-lead dating
utility allocation
vague topology
vanishing cycle
variational principle
varieties of lattices and lattices
of varieties
vector-valued integral
vena contracta
vera causa
verbatim
versal unfolding
vertical angles
vice versa
videlicet
vinculum
virial expansion
virtual arithmetic genus/particle
viscosity
viscous and inviscid uids
void set
voltage drop
vying hypotheses
waiting time
Walrasian equilibrium
warped product
wasan
water-coal slurry
wave-particle duality
wave propagation/steepness
wavelength and wavenumber
weak lacuna
weak-star topology

159
weakly compact set
web group
webbed space
well-formed formula
well-ordered set
well-posed problem
whence, hence, and from there
wild space
winding number
with recourse to A
with the aim of A
with the exception of A
with the help of A /by the aid
of A
with the intention of A
with the notation of Chapter 1
with/in reference to A
without loss of generality
word for word
Wronskian
X-ray microscopy
xerography
Yang{Mills gauge theory
yea and nay
yenri
Yukawa potential
Zeeman e ect
Zermelo universe
zero-one laws
zillion
>, verum
⊥, falsum
. . . ellipsis

dots/periods

Appendix 4
Verb Patterns
Verb
accept
account for
acknowledge
acquire
add
admit
advise
advocate
affirm
afford
agree
aid
allow
announce
answer
anticipate
appoint
appreciate
arrange
ascertain
ask
assert
assign
assist
associate
assume
assure
attempt
authorize
avoid

I
+

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+
(to)+

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Tt

+
+
+ (be)

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(as)
(to)
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(on)

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+
+(on)
(for)
+(to)

+
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+

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(with)

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(to) up
(to)
(on, against)
(to)
(to)
+(to)

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(’)+
) ∗ (’)+
(’)+
+ (’)
+

(
+
(
(to)+ (to)+
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+
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+
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+
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(in, with)
+(to, for, in)
(to)
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+

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)+

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+(to)
(in, with)
(with)

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(of)
+

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(in, with)
+

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ban
Verb

Tg

I

Tf

∗ (’)
Tw

160

Tt

Tg

(from)
Tna

Tnn

Verb
bar
begin
believe
bind
bring
calculate
call
carry on
carry out
cause
challenge
change
characterize
check
check up
choose
chop
claim
clarify
class
classify
commence
compel
comply
comprehend
compute
concede
conceive
conclude
confess
confine
confirm
conform
conjecture
consent
consider
Verb

I

Tf

Tw

Tt

Tg

Tna

(’)
+(as, on)
+(in)
+(to)

(for)
+(for, on)
+(with)

+

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(to)
(to, for) over

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into)

(as)
up, out

+(on)
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(as, for, from)
+(for, into) up
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(as, with)

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(from)
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(at)
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(as)
(from, with)
(to)
(to, within, in)
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Tf

+ (be)
Tw

161

Tt

+
Tg

+
Tna

+(as, for)
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Verb
constraint
continue
contribute
contrive
control
convey
convince
correlate
correspond
count

I

Verb

Tw

Tt
(

+(by)
+(to)

Tg

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in

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+

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(from)
(to, with) up
(towards, to)

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∗
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count upon
decide
decide on
declare
deduce
define
demand
demonstrate
denote
deny
depend on
describe
designate
desire
determine
devote
dictate
disclaim
disclose
discover
discuss
dislike
disprove
doubt
dwell on

Tf

+
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162

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Verb
elaborate
eliminate
emphasize
employ
enable
encourage
end
enjoin
enjoy
ensure
entail
establish
estimate
evaluate
examine
exclude
expand
expect
explain
express
facilitate
fail
fear
feel
find
find out
finish
fix
forbid
force
forecast
foresee
foretell
forget
formulate
Verb

I

Tf

Tw

Tt

Tg

Tna

Tnn

+(on)

∗
+

(from)
(to)
(as, in, at)

∗
(be)
( )∗
( )
(’)

(in)
(with, by)
(from, on,
upon)

+(in)
+

(

)∗

∗ (’)+
+

∗

(’)

∗
(for)

+(against)
(on)
(as, in)
(at)
(as)
(for, in, on)
(from)
(into)
(from, of)
(to) away
(to, in, as)

∗ (’)+

+
+

+
+ (

∗
∗
∗

∗

)

+(on)
+
(
(to)+ (to)+
∗ (to)+

)+

∗
+(in)
+(for)
+(to)
+
+(in)

+
+
+
+

+
(

I

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

∗

∗

Tf

(on)

+
+

(for)
+(for, in) out

+

(by, with) off,
up
+(for, on) up
+
(in, on) out

+

∗
(
(

+(about)

+

+

∗
∗

+

∗
+
+ (’)
+
()
•
)
()

Tw

163

)
)

(’)+

(’)
+ (’)+
(as)
Tt

Tg

Tna

Tnn

Verb
gain
gather

I
+(from)
+

gauge
get

Tf

Tw

Tt

Tg

Tna

∗
+

∗

∗

+

+

(in)

∗

∗ ( )+ ( )+

+

guarantee
guess

+
+

∗ (
+ (

)+
)

+

+(at)

have
help

)+
()
•
)+
•

+

+

hold

+(to)

+

hope
hypothesize

+(to)
+(about)

+
+

∗

∗
∗

∗
∗

(’)

+ (be)

(’)+

ignore
illustrate
imagine
imply
incline
include
indicate
infer
inform
inquire
inspire
instruct
intend
interpret
investigate
involve

(
(

+
(to)+

(on)
+(about)

Verb

(

I

+

)+

(to)+ (to)+
+
+
( )∗ ( )∗
∗
+

∗
∗
∗

+

∗

∗

∗

∗

Tf

(with)
+(as)
(towards)
(in, among)
(to)
(from)
(of, about)
(of)
(in, to)
(in, about)
+(as, for, by)
(as, to)

+

(
( )∗ (
±
(

+(on)
+

(as, for)
(in, with) on,
up
+(to, against)
up, out

∗

( )∗
+(for)
+

+(for, into, out
of) to
+(to, against)

+

∗

justify
keep
keep off

+

(to)
+

Tnn
+(for)
(round, from)
up, in

)
)
)+

+

∗

Tw

164

(’)+

(in, with)

(’)+

(to)

( )+

+

+(for, from, on)

Tg

Tna

Tnn

∗
Tt

Verb
keep on
know

lay down
lead
learn
let
let out
like

I

(to)
+(of)

mean
mention
mind
miscalculate
misinterpret
miss
motivate
move
name
necessitate
need
negate
neglect
note
notice
notify
object
Verb

Tw

Tt

+

+ (

+

∗

+

+

Tg

+

Tna

)+

(as, from, of,
about)

+

+

+

∗

∗ ( )+ (’)+

+

)+
•

+

+
(for)

(
+

+ (

∗

+

Tnn

+

)∗
+
)∗

(
(

maintain
make
make out
manage
mark

Tf

∗

+
+

(from, about)
(into, out)
(to)

(with)
+(for, out, from,
up)

)

+(on)

+
(’)

+

(by)

+
(be)+
(to)+ (to)+
(’)+
+(about)
+
+
(’)+
+
+
∗
+
+
∗
+
(’)+
( )
+(from)
±
( )
(

(to, from, out)

)

∗

(with, on, as)
off
+(for, to, as)
(as, to)

+(as, for)
(’)+
+
+

∗
+
+
+
+
+
( )∗ ( )∗ (

+

+(to)
I

+
down

•

()

)

(to, about)

+
Tf

Tw

165

Tt

Tg

Tna

Tnn

Verb
observe
obtain
omit
order
perceive
perform
permit
persuade
place
plan
plot
point out
ponder
postpone
postulate
predicate
predict
prefer
prepare
presume
presuppose
pretend
proceed
proclaim
profess
prohibit
promise
prompt
pronounce
propose
prove
provide
put forward
put off
Verb

I
+(on)
+

+(on)
+(of)

Tf

Tw

Tt

+

+

∗
∗
±

∗
(

)

+

+ (

)

Tg

Tnn

•

(from, for)
+

∗
∗
( )∗

Tna

+
+(for, from)
()

(as)
(on)

( ) ∗ (’)+
( )

+
(into, out, of)
(in, before, on)
aside
(for)
(on) out
(to)

+
+(on)
+(with)
+(on)

∗

+
+
(to)+ (to)+
+

+
+

∗
+
+
+

±
+(for)
(on)
+(to)
+(with,
to)

+
+
+

(to)+
+
+
+
+(on)
+
(for)

( )+

(

(to, until)

)

(on, upon)

+

(’)

( )+
( )+
∗ (be)+

∗

+

+
+

∗

+

+

∗
+
∗
∗ (’)
∗ ( )+
( )∗

(from)
+(to)

+
(to)±
∗
+ (’)+
(to)+ (to)+ (be)

+
+

±
∗
∗
Tf

(to)
(for)

+
+

+
I

+

∗

Tw

166

Tt

+
Tg

(after)
(to, as, for)
(to)
(with, for)
(until)

Tna

Tnn

Verb

I

qualify
question

+(for)

read
reaffirm
realize
reason
reason out
recall
recapitulate
recast
receive
reckon
recognize
recollect
recommend
record
recount
refer
refuse
refute
regard
register
reiterate
relate
rely on
remark
remember
remind
repeat
replace
reply
report
represent
request
require
resemble
resolve
restate

+(about)

Verb

Tf

Tw

Tt
(

Tg

Tna

)

as
(about)

+

+(from)

+
+
+
+
+
+

+

+(as, for)
(as)

+

∗

(into, out of)

∗

+

∗

+
+
+

+

∗

∗
∗ (be)

+

+
+
+

+

(to)±
+

(on)

(’)+

(as, to, from)
(as)
(as, from, with)
in
(as, by, from)

+
+
+ (
+
(to)+

(’)+
(’)+
()

)

+(to)
+

+(as, to)
(from, on)
(to)
(to)
+(to)

+

∗

∗
(as, with)
(as, in, at)
(to)
(to, with)

(for, as)
+
+(to)
+(on)
+
+
+(to)
+(on)

(
(to)+
∗
+
+
( )∗ ( )∗ (
(to)+ (to)+

±
±
∗
(on)

+

∗
I

∗
(to)+

+
(to)+
(to)+

Tf

Tnn

)

( )+
+ (’)+

+ (be)
(’)+
∗ (be)
∗ ( )∗
( ) ∗ (’)+

∗
∗
∗
Tw

167

(as)
(of, about)
(to)
(as, with, by)

)

+

(to, as, for, on)
(to, as)
(from, of)
(of, from)
(in)
(into)

Tna

Tnn

+
Tt

Tg

Verb
result in
resume
reveal
rewrite
rule
rule out
save
say
scrutinize
see
select
send
serve
set
set about
set down
settle
show
signal
signify
solve
specify
spot
start
state
stipulate
stop
stress
study
substantiate
substitute
subsume
succeed
suggest
support
suppose
surmise
Verb

I

Tf

Tw

Tt

Tg

Tna

Tnn

()

∗

+

∗

+

(to)+ (to)+
+(on)

+(on)

∗
±
∗

∗
(be)

∗
∗

∗
+ (
(

(for)
+(for, in)
+(about)

+(for, from) up
(to, about, of)

+

+

∗

+
(’)+

(to)+ (to)+
+

+

∗

(
(

(to)
(as, for)
(out, as)

)
()
)∗
()
)
)

+

(as,
(as,
(as,
+(as,
+(to,

in, to, of)
for, from)
to, on, out)
with, to)
for)

+
+(on)
+
(for)
+

+
+
+
+
( )+ ( )+ (be)
(to)+ (to)+ ( )
+

(as)
(with, in) down
+(to, over) up
(to)

()

∗
+

+
+

+(on, for)
(to)+
(for)

±

+
+

+

(by)
(as)
(as, in, on)
(to)

()
+ ( )+

∗
∗
∗ (’)+

(from, with)

+
+(on)

+

∗

∗

∗

∗

+

(for)

∗
∗
∗ (’)+

(for)
(in, under)
(as)
(as, to, for)
(in)

(for)
+(in, to)
(to)

I

± (to)+
∗
∗
(’)
+
∗ (be) ∗
+
+
∗
Tf

Tw

168

Tt

Tg

+
Tna

Tnn

Verb

I

take
tell
terminate
test
think
think of
tolerate
treat
try
turn out
underline
understand
undertake
urge
use

Tw

(to)
+(of)
+
+(for)
+(about)
+
+(of)
+
+

+

verify

( )∗

(for)

+(over)
+(for)
(from)
+(at)
+(at, as)
+
+

yield

+(to)

I

Tt

Tg

(be)

( )+

( )∗ (

Tna

Tnn
+(as, for, to,
from) up
+(to, about)

)

∗
∗

∗

+

+
+

∗

+

+
( )+
(’)

+
+

∗

∗

∗

+
+

+ (

±
∗

(
(

+

want
warn
warrant
watch
wish
withhold
wonder
work
work out
write

Verb

Tf

)

(as, with)
+(for)

+

(’)

(by)

(’)+

(on, upon)
(for, as)

+
)
)

+

(
( )∗ ( )∗ (
+
∗
+
+
(

)+ (’)+
)
(’)
()
)+

+

+

∗
+

+

+
+

+

∗

∗

∗

Tw

169

(as, for)
(about, of, off)

+away
(from)

+
+

Tf

(on, for, in)
+at, over
(as)

+

(on) down, out
+(to, for) out
(to) up

Tt

Tg

Tna

Tnn

Appendix 5
Difficulties in Complementing
Word

+ [prep]

ability
able
absorbed
abstraction
absurd
abusive
accessible
accident
accomplishment
accuracy
addition
adequate
advice
agreement
analysis
application
approach
appropriate
argument
associated
assumption
attempt
axiom

at, in

belief
bizarre

in

capability
case
cause
certain
chance
characteristic

of,

Word

[prep] +

+ [f ]

of

in, by, with
of, from
of
to
to

+
+
+

by

in
to

+

in

for,

to
on, about
on, between

+ [t]

on
in, by
upon, in

to, for
to
for/to
about, for, against
with
about, of
on (the), by
at, on

+
+

±

+

+
+
+

±

+

+
+
+

+

+
+

for
in, of

in, at

about, of
of, for
of

for
by

for

+ [prep]

+
+
[prep] +

170

+

+ [f ]

+
[ ]+
+
+ [t]

Word

+ [prep]

[prep] +

circumstances
claim
clear
comment
comparison
competence
composed
conceivable
concern
conclusion
condition
conjecture
conscious
consistent
contradictory
control
convenient
cooperation
correct
corresponding
critical
crucial
curious

in
under/in (the)
for, on, to, against
from, to
on
to, between
by
for, as, in
of

dangerous
decision
de nite
demand
dependent
desire
di erent
dicult
diculty
disappointed
disappointment
discussion
doubt
dubious
easy

for
on, against
about
for
un, upon
for
from/to
for

Word

about, for, in

at (the)
on

for, on, in
of
with
to
of, over, on
for
with, on, in
in
to
of, to
for, to
about

under, in

+ [f ]

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

in

+

+

+

+

+

+
+

+

[ ]+

+
+
+
+

+
+

±

+
+

in

in

at, in, with, about
to, at, about, over to
about, of
under
about, of
in
about

for

+

[prep] +

171

[ ]+

+
+

+ [prep]

+

±

±
±

of

+ [t]

+ [f ]

[ ]+
+ [t]

Word

e ective
ecient
equation
equipped
erroneous
essential
examination
experience
experienced
expert
explanation
fact
failure
fault
exibility
force
formula
fortunate
free
frustrating
ful lled
function
fundamental
futile

+ [prep]

[prep] +

+ [f ]

+
+

in
in

in, for
with, for
for, to, in
in, on, of
from, of
in
at, in
for

under
by, from

±

[ ]+
+
+
+

+

in

in

+

at

+

in, by

for
in

+

from, of

+

in
of
to

+
+
+
[ ]+
[ ]+
+

+
+

generous
grateful
grati ed

in, with
for, to
at, by, over,with

+
+

hope
hopeful
hopeless

for, of
of, about
at

+
+

identical
ignorant
illegal
illustrative
imperative
impossible

to, with
of, in

Word

+ [t]

[ ]+
+
+

of

±

for
+ [prep]

[prep] +

172

+ [f ]

+
[ ]+
+ [t]

Word

improbable
improper
improvement
inappropriate
incompatible
increment
independent
indicative
indi erent
indispensable
inference
in uence
in uential
information
ingenious
inpatient
insistent
inspection
inspiring
instructions
intended
interested
introduction
investigation
invitation
irregular
irrelevant
irrespective
insight
insistent

+ [prep]

[prep] +

+

for
on, over, in
for, to
with
in
of
of
to, about
to, for

±

on, for

under

on

for

in

at

at, with, of
on/upon

judicious
justi cation
justi ed

for

in

knowledge

of, about

+

±

on
on

Word

+ [t]

+
+

+

for
for
in
to, into
into, of
to
in
to
of
into
on

lawful
legitimate
liable

+ [f ]

±

+
+
[ ]+
+
+
+

on, under
by

+
+
+

in

+
+
+

+

+
+
+
+

for, to
+ [prep]

[prep] +

173

+ [f ]

+ [t]

Word

linear
logical
method
misleading
mistake
natural
necessary
necessity
need
normal
objection
obliged
observation
obstacle
obstinate
obvious
occupied
opinion
opportunity
option
order
origin
paradoxical
place
peculiar
perceptive
perfect
permissible
perplexed
pessimistic
plain
plan
plausible
plot
point
policy
polynomial
Word

+ [prep]

[prep] +

+ [f ]

in
of, for,

+ [t]

+
+

in

about, in

+
+

by
+

for, to
for, of
for

±

of
in

against
to, for
about
to
in, about
to
in, with
about, of

+

to,

+
under

+

+
+
+
+
+
+

+

for, of

on
for
in, of

in

+

in, out, of

±

in, at

to
of
for

+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
[ ]+

at, about, over
about, at, over
to

+

for

+

against

+

in

on
in
+ [prep]

[prep] +

174

[ ]+
+
+
+

±

+

+ [f ]

+ [t]

Word

+ [prep]

[prep] +

popular
position
positive
possibility
possible
postulate
practice
preferable
prepared
prerequisite
prerogative
presumption
probable
problem
pro cient
program
progress
promise
prompt
pronouncement
proof
proper
proposition
prospects
protection
puzzling

as, with
on, of
about

for, of
against, from
to

under

quali cation
question

for
about, as to, of

in, into

rational
ready
realistic
realization
reason
reasoning
reassuring
recommendation
record
recursive
Word

in/into

of

of
of

in, into

to

for
for, of, to
of
for

+ [f ]

+
+
+
+
±

+
+

of
at, in

in
in, forwards
of
at, in
on
of
for

+

in

+
+

±

within

on

for, to
as, of, for
in

of, on

+ [prep]

[prep] +

175

+
+
+
[ ]+
+
+
+

in
of

+
+

+
+
+

+

for
for

+ [t]

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

±

+
+

+ [f ]

+ [t]

Word

+ [prep]

reference
re ection
refusal
regulation
related
relief
remark
remarkable
replacement
report
reputation
reputed
request
research
respect
responsibility
ridiculous
right
risk
rule

to
on, after

satisfaction
satis ed
section
separate
series
side
sign
signal
signi cant
simple
solution
special
stage
step
study
success
suciency
sucient
suggestion
Word

[prep] +

+ [f ]

for
on
±

to, by
from, to
on, upon
for
for
on, about
as, for, of

in

+
+
+

+
+
+

+

by

for
into, on, in
for
for, to

+ [t]

at (one's)

±

with, in
on (one's)

±

[ ]+
+

about, in
of, to
for, against, of

+
+
+
+

+
+
[ ]+
+
+

about, with, for, to
with

+
+

[ ]+

from
about

in
on, from

of
from
for, to
to, for, of
to

+
+
+

+
+
+

at
in
under

of

in, of
in, with
of
for
about

±

+ [prep]

[prep] +

176

+ [f ]

+
+ [t]

Word

+ [prep]

[prep] +

suited
superior
support
supposed
suspicious

for
in, to
for, in

tangent
tantamount
test
thankful
theory
thoughtful
treatment
trial
troublesome
try
turn

to
to
in, on, for

understanding
understood
unique
unreasonable
upset
use
useless

about, with, of

on (the)

in, to
in
about, over, with
for, in, of

for, in

view

on, about

in, within

way
welcome
witness
worrying
worthy
wrong

to, for, in, of
to
for, to, against
about, over
of
in, with

in (a)

unsure

of

Word

in

about, of

+

for

of
about
for
for, to
at,

to

+ [f ]

+
+

in
under
on

+ [t]

[ ]+

+
+
+
+

for
+
+

+
[ ]+
+

+
+
+
+
[ ]+
*

+ [prep]

[prep] +

177

+ [f ]

+ [t]

‹¨â¥à âãà
1. Amis K., The King's English. A Guide to Modern Usage, St. Martin's
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

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à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
a lot of, 52, 143
a number of, 143
a/an, 51, 56
a/an ¯¥à¥¤ [U]-noun, 61
-able ¨«¨ -ible, 63
absolute construction, 30, 112
abstract factive noun, 113
according as, 111
accusative case, 86
active voice, 65, 72
actually, 125
adjective complement, 65
adjective, 64, 75
adjective phrase, 75
adjectivized ed-participles,
65, 95
adjunct, 71, 90
adverb phrase, 89
adverbials, 89
adverbs, 74, 89, 93
adverbs complementing
prepositions, 95
adverbs in premodi cation, 93
a ect, 143
-al and -age, 124
all, 52, 54, 135
All-Russia or All-Russian, 145
all of you, 54
also, 93, 135, 143
although, 34, 94, 143
American English, 42
American Literary Standard, 43

ampli ers, 91
and, 110
and so, 101
and then, 102
another, 51
any, 14, 51, 107
any one, 143
anyone, 143
any way, 143
anyway, 34, 143
apposition, 74, 113, 114
archaic, 37
articles, 52
as, 54, 76, 135, 143
as ... as, 77, 87, 103
as if, 74, 111
as much, 53
as though, 74, 87
as well, 93, 135
as+ing-clause, 76
aspect, 72
aspective function, 61
at, 143
attributive adjectives, 64
attributive and adverbial
prepositional phrases, 59
averse, converse, inverse, and
reverse, 22
avoid notation, 15
background future situation,
135
bare in nitive, 30, 75, 104

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
be, 125, 143
because, 34, 106, 143
because of, 106, 144
being, 31
besides, 94, 143
both, 52, 54, 143
both vs. the two, 122
British English, 42
but, 110
but ... however/although, 102
but for, 108
but then, 101
by far, 95
by method, 136
Campbell R., 144
can't, 125
cardinals, 52
Carrol L., 29, 143
certain, 53
certainly and surely, 93
Chandler R., 92
Cicero, 41
clarity and obscurity, 8
Clark J., 114, 117, 177
clause, 64, 89, 101
cleft sentence, 100
collocations, 40
comma splice, 103, 111
common noun, 44
comparatives, 95
complement, 75
complementation, 118
compound conjunction, 110
compounds, 45
concise writing, 34
conditional mood, 72
conjunct, 90, 112
conjunction, 74, 90, 110
conjunctions introducing
gerunds, 87
contain, 15
continuous (= progressive)
aspect, 72
continuous tenses, 79
contractions, 125
coordination, 101

185
copula, 71
correlative subordinators, 102
could, 144
count and noncount nouns, 58
countable noun, 44
currently, 125
dangling construction, 23, 29
dash, 117
declarative sentences are the
best, 14
de ning element, 112
de nite aspect, 72
demonstratives, 52
descriptive of-phrase, 59
despite, 143
determiner, 51
direct and indirect speech, 38
direct object, 74
direct style, 38
discontinuous noun phrases, 67
disjunct, 90, 112
distributives, 51
don't, 125
don't ¨«¨ do not, 143
downtoners, 91
dummy it, 119
dynamic verb, 79
each, 14, 51, 137, 143
each of them, 54
each other, 28, 143
ed-participle, 64, 135
editorial \we", 14, 125
e ect, 143
either, 51
either ... or, 98
ellipsis, 39, 72
else, 93
em-dash, 117
emphasizers, 52, 91
en-dash, 117
enough, 52, 93
essentially, 124
euphony, 56
ever, 107
every, 14, 51, 137, 143

186
every of is a solecism, 57
every/each, 57
every/each/no A and
every/each/no B is C ,
137, 139
everything, 113
excepting, 26
exclamation mark/point, 125
existential quanti er, 14, 56
existential sentences, 97
extraposition, 100, 119
factual adjective, 119
far, 95
few, 52
nal clause, 102
nal position, 91
nite clause, 72
nite form, 72
nite that-clause, 114, 119
nite verb, 72
nite verb phrase, 72
Fiske R., 34, 119
orid style, 38
for, 102, 107, 110
for ¨«¨ to, 75
for-clause, 138
Fowler H., 19, 93, 144, 179
fractions, 52
fronting, 99
FTF, 17
fulsome, 143
fused participle, 86
Future in the Past, 38
galore, 64
Garner B., 69, 98, 179
generic function, 61
generic sense, 58
genitive case, 57, 58, 88, 119
gerund, 84
gerunds as adverbials, 87
given, 14, 55, 133
Good English consists of short
words, 19
Good English style, 13
good vs. bad, 138

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
Gould S., 1, 4, 33, 115, 121, 178
grades of quantity, 53
great dozen of determiner
commandments, 62
Greenbaum S., 8, 27, 37, 182
half, 52, 54
Halmos P., 13, 28, 41, 106,
121, 181
hardly, 26, 96
head of a noun phrase, 64
hence, thence, etc., 35
Higham N., 117, 124, 179
Hornby A., 25, 58, 84, 179
how, 54, 135
however, 110
hyphen, 43, 116
hyphen in compounds, 47, 65
hyphen in premodi cation, 65
idiom, 11, 40
idiomatic usage, 40
if, 108, 110
if and whether, 74
if-clause, 107
iff, 123
if ... then ..., 16, 106
imperative mood, 72
improbable sentence, 98
in, 144
in case that, 111
in fact, 125
in much the same way, 144
in order that, 102, 144
in order that + [f], 144
in-, il-, ir-, ¨«¨ im-, 46
inasmuch as, 111
include, 15
indeed, 110
inde nite aspect, 72
inde nite one, 14, 27, 125
inde nite pronoun, 113
inde nites, 51
independently of, 93
indicative mood, 72
indirect object, 74
individualizing function, 61

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
inexperienced, 46
informal, 37
ing-clause, 76
ing-ä®à¬ , 72
ing-form, 84
ing-form after all prepositions,
87
ing-forms after there is/are
must be negative, 99
ing-participle, 64
ing-participle clause, 86
initial position, 91
intensive verb, 70
interesting, 124
intransitive verb, 65, 71
inversion, 99, 138
inverted verb, 98
irrespectively of, 93
\It is" opener, 125
it's, 125
its every ..., 122
its is tricky, 122
Jennings P., 6
Jespersen O., 40, 73
just, 43, 52
Kane T., 115, 180
Kennedy J., 90
kind/type/sort of, 62
Knuth D., 113
Krantz S. G., 113, 180
last, 53, 139
lax equivalence, 124
least, 52
lemmata, 25, 49
less, 52, 124
lest, 102, 139
let's, 125
Lewis N., 92, 180
lily-words, 93
linking verb, 70
little, 52
Littlewood J., 10, 183
logic and reason, 26
Longman Guide, 28, 70, 81,
92, 98, 117, 182

187
ly words, 21, 93
manque, 64
many, 52, 143
may, 144
may not is ambiguous, 122
mere, 64
middle position, 91
middle position of place
adjuncts, 91
might, 144
minicourse if{then, 109
minicourse of punctuation, 116
minicourse very-much
¢ ¯à¨¬¥à å, 95
modi cation of adjectives, 65
modi cation of ed-participles,
65
modifying modi ers, 135
modus ponens, 106
mood, 72
more, 52
more than one, 144
most, 52, 144
mostly, 144
much, 52, 53, 94
must is never in the Past, 139
negative purpose, 102
negative sentence, 53, 93,
107, 135
neither, 51, 94
neither ... nor, 98
neutral approach, 14
never leave a free variable, 15
never prepose an adjectival
phrase with a complement,
65
never put two periods, 137
next, 53, 153
nice, 124
no, 51, 137, 139
nominating function, 61
nonassertive words, 107
nonce-word, 41
non nite clause, 72
nonrestrictive clause, 113

188
nonrestrictive element, 112
nonwords, 41
nor, 94
notwithstanding, 111
noun as an adjective, 66, 124
noun phrase, 64
number \1", 125
numbers, 125
nursery rhyme, 114
object complement, 71, 119
of + an ing-form, 87
of after superlatives, 60
of-genitive, 66, 85
... of the ..., 55
omission of and, 115omission
of that, 73
on, 94, 144
on account of, 144
on condition that, 139
one, 55, 125
one another, 28, 143
one as a substitute, 55
one determiner is enough, 57
One Future Is Enough, 104
\one" is best avoided, 125
Opdycke J., 98, 180
or else, 96
or else/again, 102
order in premodi cation, 66
order of adverbials, 90, 143
order of ordinals and cardinals,
53
ordinals, 52
Orwell G., 9, 28, 81, 180
other, 51, 53
out, 77
outset of a new discourse, 98
overworked punctuation
marks, 16
own, 55
parallelly, 93
part, 139
participles, 72
Partridge E., 28, 32, 43, 54, 73,
92, 143, 144, 180

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
passive, 81, 94
passive transformation, 81
passive voice, 65, 72
Past Subjunctive, 108
perfect aspect, 72
phrasal conjunction, 111
phrasal verb, 40, 70, 77
Pidgin, 17
pile-up of prepositional
phrases, 121
plural noun, 45
position of adverbials, 89
positive sentence, 53
possess, 140
possessive pronouns block the
passive transformation, 83
possessives, 52
postdeterminer, 52
postmodi cation, 63
postmodi cation and articles,
61
postmodi cation with
an of-phrase, 62
preceding, 139
predeterminer, 52
predicative adjectives, 64, 95
premodi cation, 63
premodi cation confers
permanence, 66
preposition, 114
prepositional phrase, 71, 89
prepositional verb, 70
Present Perfect, 43
Present Subjunctive, 119
Present Tense, 125
Present ¢¬¥áâ® Future, 104
process adjuncts, 80
progressive, 79
pronouns, 73
proper noun, 44
proven, 140
proverbs and sayings, 37, 178
provided that, 111
provided/providing that, 32
purposive clause, 102

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
quanti ers, 52
Quirk R., 8, 26, 27, 29, 58,
66, 72, 83, 84, 98, 119,
122, 180
quite, 54, 124
quotation marks, 43, 115
rather, 54, 124
rather than, 103
really, 125
relatives, 51
respectively, 122
restrictive adjectives, 60
restrictive clause, 113
restrictive element, 112
restrictive function, 61
retained object, 83
same, 53, 144
same as, 144
semicolon, 111
sequence of tenses, 105
set phrase, 66
several, 52
's genitive, 66
shear, 64
Show B., 83
sign of in nitive, 75
similarly, 21, 93, 144
Simple Past, 43
simple tenses, 68
simplicity, 39
since, 110, 143
since ... then ..., 21, 103, 123
singular noun, 44
slang, 37, 178
smattering of English, 141
Smiles S., 19
so, 54, 94, 135, 142
so + [f], 144
so ... as, 87
so that, 102
solecism, 6, 22, 23, 26, 55, 57,
65, 66, 74, 76, 77, 80, 88,
93, 94, 103, 107, 112, 118,
119, 120, 122, 123
some, 51

189
something, 113
somewhat, 53
split in nitive, 92
stative verb, 79, 92
stressed any/some, 52
subject complement, 70, 74
subject-verb agreement, 144
subjunctive, 72, 73, 104, 144
subordinate clause, 102
subordination, 101
subordinators, 102
substitute, 76
such, 52, 56
such a/an, 54, 100, 144
such as, 100
such that, 100
suchlike, 52
superlative, 52, 60, 95, 113
superminicourse for enemies
of articles, 61
superminicourse for friends
of articles, 60
superordinate clause, 102
Swan M., 28, 44, 55, 87, 104,
144, 181
synesis, 69, 144
taboo, 37, 182
tense, 72
than, 87, 103, 105
that, 73, 113
that ... not, 102
that as a proform, 142
that for íâ®â, 121
that-appositive clause, 113
that-clause, 73
that-clause in complementation,
74
the, 51, 55
the and there is/are, 56
the majority of the ..., 55
the other, 53
the rest of the ..., 55
the sooner ... the better, 100
the very, 53
then, 103, 106, 142, 144
there is/are, 56, 94, 97, 125

190
thing, 125
those, 142
though, 94
till, 94
to is not capitalized, 137
to-in nitive clause, 119
too, 54, 93, 135
too much, 53
transitive verb, 71
translations are seldom faithful
if attractive, 144
un-, in- ¨«¨ non-, 46
uncountable noun, 44
unique, 56
unity, 125
universal quanti er, 14
unreal condition ¢ ­ áâ®ï饬,
107
unreal condition ¢ ¯à®è«®¬,
108
until, 94
upon, 94
use of the imperative, 14
usus, 10
utter, 64
Vallins G, 117
verb, 70, 142
verb pattern, 23, 71
verbals, 72
very, 94, 124, 125
voice, 72
well vs. ill, 138
were, 108
wh-clause, 73
wh-words, 73
what, 135
what(ever), 51
when, 87, 90
where, 14
whether, 108
whether or if, 140
which ¨«¨ that, 22, 88,
113, 144
which(ever), 51
while, 87, 135

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
Whitaker F., 115
Whitman W., 39
who/whom, 113
whole, 55, 135
whose, 51
wicked which, 113
will ¨«¨ shall, 69
with tools, 136
without doubt, 125
worth, 87
zero article, 51, 58, 59
zero article in of-phrases, 60
∅ article, 51
[a], 75, 119
[AE], 42
[BE], 42
[C], 44
[dob], 74
[iob], 74
[Ipr], 76
[It], 73
[I], 71
[L], 71
[n], 71
[prep]+, 118
[P], 45
[P]+[C], 45
[P]-ä®à¬ £« £®« , 45
[S], 44, 45
[S] or [U] in premodi cation, 66
[S]-ä®à¬ £« £®« , 45
[T], 71
[Tf], 72
[Tg], 72, 77, 86
[Tn], 71
[Tna], 75
[Tnf], 74
[Tng], 86
[Tni], 75

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
[Tnn], 75
[Tnpr], 76
[Tnt], 72, 74
[Tsg], 86
[Tt], 72
[T(to)nf], 74
[Tw], 72
[U], 44
[ ]+, 120
∗, 77
, 75
+, 75
±, 73, 119
( )+, 74
( ), 86
('), 86
(be)+, 75
(to)+, 74
+[f], 119
+[prep], 118
+[t], 119
¡á®«îâ­®¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥
£« £®«®¢, 71
¢â®¬ ⨧¬ ¢®á¯à®¨§¢¥¤¥­¨ï,
5
ªà®­¨¬, 56
âਡã⨢­®¥ ¨
¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­®¥
㯮âॡ«¥­¨¥, 64
âਡã⨢­®¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥,
64
ä®à¨§¬ë, 25
¡ « ­á¨à®¢ ­¨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥­¨©,
59
¡ « ­á¨à®¢ ­¨¥ áâàãªâãàë
¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, 67
¡¥áá®î§­®¥ ᮥ¤¨­¥­¨¥, 103
¡®«ìè ï «¨â¥à âãà , 8
¢¢®¤­ë¥ í«¥¬¥­âë, 112
¢à ­ìe, 3
¢ë¤¥«¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®£ ¢
â ¡«¨æ¥, 76, 118
•
•

191
£¥àã­¤¨©-¢-ᥡ¥, 85
£¥àã­¤¨©-¤«ï-ᥡï, 85
£« £®«ë ­ ãç­®£® àï¤ , 58
£« £®«ë íª§¨á⥭樮­ «ì­®£®
àï¤ , 97
£« £®«ë, ­¥¯®¤«¥¦ 騥
¯ áᨢ¨§ 樨, 82
£« £®«ì­®¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥, 71
£« £®«ì­ë¥ ¨¤¨®¬ë, 40, 77
¤¢ãï§ëç­ë¥ á«®¢ à¨
­¥¤®áâ â®ç­ë, 25
¤¥ä¥ªâë ®à¨£¨­ « , 7
¥¤¨­á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«® â®ç­¥¥, 30
§ £®«®¢®ª, 18, 142
ý§ ¥æþ, 38
§ ª®­®¬¥à­®á⨠­¥à®¤­®£®
ï§ëª , 26
§ ¯à¥é¥­¨ï ¨ ¨áª«î祭¨ï, 58
¨§®«¨àãîé ï ¯ã­ªâã æ¨ï, 112
¨§®«¨àãî騥 § ¯ïâë¥,
110, 112
¨§®«¨àãî騥 § ¯ïâë¥ ¤«ï
®¤­®§­ ç­®áâ¨, 114
¨¬¯«¨ª æ¨ï, 106
¨­¢¥àᨨ á there, 26, 99
¨­¢¥àá¨ï ¯®á«¥ neither,
nor, so, 94
¨­¢¥àá¨ï ¯®á«¥ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢
¬¥áâ , 94
¨áâ®ç­¨ª¨ ®è¨¡®ª, 5
ª «ìª¨à®¢ ­¨¥, 5
ª ­æ¥«ïà¨â, 9
ª ç¥á⢮ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ , 4, 5
ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï adverbials, 90
ª®­â஫ì â¥à¬¨­®¢, 24
ª®à¯®à ⨢­ë¥ ¤¥â «¨, 57
ªà¨â¥à¨© ¢ë¡®à ä®à¬ë, 92
« ¯¨¤ à­®áâì, 33, 57, 59
«¥ªá¨ç¥áª ï § ¢¨á¨¬®áâì,
76, 87, 118, 119
«¨è­¨¥ participles, 121
«®£¨ª ¢ ¦­¥¥ ä®à¬ë, 105
«®£¨ª ¨ à 樮­ «ì­®áâì, 26
«®¦­ë¥ ¤àã§ìï, 78

192
¬¥áâ® á®î§ , 107
¬­®¦¥á⢥­­®¥ ç¨á«®, 49
¬®¤¨ä¨ª æ¨ï -ly words, 21
Œî««¥à ‚. Š., 25, 183
­¥à¥ «ì­ë¥ ãá«®¢¨ï, 107
­¥ã¤ ç­ë¥ ®¡®¡é¥­¨ï, 26
­®¬¥­ª« âãà , 67
®¡®§­ 祭¨ï ª ª ¨¬¥­ , 59
®¡à §¥æ, 24
®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠§ £« £®«®¬,
91
®¡é¨¥ ¯à ¢¨« ¬®£ãâ
­ àãè âìáï, 26
®¤­®ï§ëç­ë© á«®¢ àì, 25
®â£« £®«ì­ë¥ áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥,
58
®âª § ®â ¨¤¨®¬, 11
®â«®¦¥­­®¥ ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥,
97, 98
®âáãâá⢨¥ +, 72, 75
®âáãâá⢨¥ ¯à®¡¥«®¢, 117
®âáãâáâ¢ãî饥 ¯®¤«¥¦ 饥,
87
®ä®à¬«¥­¨¥ ᯨ᪮¢, 115
¯ à ««¥«ì­ë¥ ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨,
111
¯®¢â®à¥­¨¥ à⨪«¥©, 58
¯®¢â®àë ­¥¦¥« ⥫ì­ë, 88
¯®¤áâà®ç­ë© ¯¥à¥¢®¤, 17
¯®à冷ª ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìáâ¢
¢à¥¬¥­¨, 90
¯®à冷ª á«®¢, 22
¯à ¢¨«® ®¡®¡é¥­¨ï, 29
¯à¥¤¨ª ⨢­®¥ ¨á¯®«ì§®¢ ­¨¥,
64
¯à¥¤¨á«®¢¨¥, 18
¯à¥¤«®¦­®¥ ã¯à ¢«¥­¨¥ á
[Tnn], 75
¯à¥¤¬¥â ¯¥à¥¢®¤ , 4, 5, 7
¯à¨¤ â®ç­®¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨¥ ¡¥§
¯®¤«¥¦ 饣®, 30
¯à¨­æ¨¯ 㬮«ç ­¨ï, 33
¯à®á⮩ á®î§, 110
¯à®ä¥áᨮ­ «¨§¬, 5
¯ã­ªâã æ¨ï, 16, 22, 110

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
à §¤¥«ïî騥 § ¯ïâë¥, 110
ॠ«ì­ë¥ ãá«®¢¨ï, 107
।ª¨¥ á«®¢ , 37
த®®¡à §®¢ ­¨¥, 58
á ¬®ªà¨â¨ç­®áâì, 5
ᢥà寥ॢ®¤, 33
᢮¡®¤­ë¥ ª®¬¡¨­ 樨, 76
á¢ï§ãî騩 £« £®«, 71
á«®¢ ­ -ics, 45
ᮡá⢥­­ë¥ ¨¬¥­ , 18
ᮣ« ᮢ ­¨¥ á ¡«¨¦ ©è¨¬
í«¥¬¥­â®¬, 98
ᮥ¤¨­¥­¨¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨©, 103
᮪à 饭¨ï, 56
á®áâ ¢­®© á®î§, 110
á®áâ ¢­ë¥ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï, 101
á¯¥æ¨ «¨§¨à®¢ ­­ë© á«®¢ àì,
24
áá뫪¨, 56
á⨫ì, 11
áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ë¥ ­ ãç­®£®
àï¤ , 58
â¥à¬¨­®«®£¨ï, 5, 8, 17, 24
â¨à¥, 117
â®â ¨«¨ ¨­®©, 121
㬮«ç ­¨¥, 33
ã­¨¢¥àá «ì­®¥ ¢ë᪠§ë¢ ­¨¥
¢ã«ì£ à­®, 29
ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï á as ।ª¨, 76
ã¯à ¢«¥­¨ï á ing-ä®à¬®©,
77, 86
ã祡­¨ª £à ¬¬ ⨪¨, 25, 27,
178, 179, 180, 181, 183
ä ¬¨«¨¨, 18
ä㭪樨 à⨪«¥©, 61
æ¥«ì ¯¥à¥¢®¤ , 7
æ¥«ì ¯ã­ªâã 樨, 115
横«¨ç¥áª¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤, 18
ç áâ®â retained objects, 83
çã¢á⢮ ¬¥àë, 8
™¥à¡ ‹. ‚., 29

à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì
íª§¨á⥭樮­ «ì­ë¥
ª®­áâàãªæ¨¨, 26, 56
íªá⥭ᨢ­ë© £« £®«, 71
í¬ä â¨ç¥áª ï ¨­¢¥àá¨ï,

193
26, 39
í¯¨§®¤¨ç¥áª¨© ¯¥à¥¢®¤ç¨ª,
5, 41, 138
ïá­®áâì ¨ ¤®å®¤ç¨¢®áâì, 8

‘¢¥¤¥­¨ï ®¡ ¢â®à¥
Šãâ ⥫ ¤§¥ ‘¥¬¥­ ‘ ¬á®­®¢¨ç, ¤®ªâ®à 䨧¨ª®-¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ­ ãª, ¯à®ä¥áá®à.
®¤¨«áï ¢ 1945 £. ¢ ‘â. ¥â¥à¡ãࣥ. ‚ 1968 £.
®ª®­ç¨« á ®â«¨ç¨¥¬ ®¢®á¨¡¨à᪨© £®á㤠àá⢥­­ë©
ã­¨¢¥àá¨â¥â ¯® ª 䥤ॠ¢ëç¨á«¨â¥«ì­®© ¬ ⥬ ⨪¨. ‡ é¨â¨« ª ­¤¨¤ âáªãî ¤¨áá¥àâ æ¨î ý‘¬¥¦­ë¥
¢®¯à®áë £¥®¬¥âਨ ¨ ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®£® ¯à®£à ¬¬¨à®¢ ­¨ïþ ¢ Ž¡ê¥¤¨­¥­­®¬ “祭®¬ ‘®¢¥â¥ ‘¨¡¨à᪮£®
®â¤¥«¥­¨ï € ‘‘‘ ¢ 1970 £. ‚ 1978 £. § é¨â¨« ¤®ªâ®àáªãî ¤¨áá¥àâ æ¨î ý‹¨­¥©­ë¥ § ¤ ç¨ ¢ë¯ãª«®£®
­ «¨§ þ ¢ ‘â. ¥â¥à¡ãà£áª®¬ £®á㤠àá⢥­­®¬ ã­¨¢¥àá¨â¥â¥.
Žá­®¢­ë¥ ­ ãç­ë¥ १ã«ìâ âë ¢ ®¡« á⨠ä㭪樮­ «ì­®£® ­ «¨§ ¨ ­¥áâ ­¤ àâ­ëå ¬¥â®¤®¢ ­ «¨§ , ¯® £¥®¬¥âਨ ¢ë¯ãª«ëå ⥫ ¨ ⥮ਨ íªáâ६ «ì­ëå § ¤ ç.
€¢â®à ã祡­¨ª ýŽá­®¢ë ä㭪樮­ «ì­®£® ­ «¨§ þ. ‚ ç¨á«¥ ¯ã¡«¨ª 権 ¡®«¥¥ áâ ¯ï⨤¥áïâ¨ á¯¥æ¨ «ì­ëå áâ ⥩, àï¤ ¬®­®£à 䨩 ¨ ã祡­ëå ¯®á®¡¨©.
‘।¨ ­¨å ý“¯®à冷祭­ë¥ ¢¥ªâ®à­ë¥ ¯à®áâà ­á⢠þ, ýã«¥¢®§­ ç­ë© ­ «¨§þ, ýŒ®­ ¤ë ¢ ®¡é¥© ⮯®«®£¨¨þ, ýŒ¥àë  ¤®­ ¨ ®¡®¡é¥­­ë¥ ä㭪樨þ.
‡ á«ã¦¥­­ë© ¢¥â¥à ­ ‘¨¡¨à᪮£® ®â¤¥«¥­¨ï ®áᨩ᪮© ª ¤¥¬¨¨ ­ ãª. ‡ ¢¥¤ãî騩 « ¡®à â®à¨¥©
ä㭪樮­ «ì­®£® ­ «¨§ ˆ­áâ¨âãâ ¬ ⥬ ⨪¨ ¨¬.
‘. ‹. ‘®¡®«¥¢ ‘Ž €. ‡ ¬¥áâ¨â¥«ì § ¢¥¤ãî饣®
ª 䥤ன ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®£® ­ «¨§ ƒ“.
—«¥­ ¯à ¢«¥­¨ï ‘¨¡¨à᪮£® ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®£® ®¡é¥á⢠. —«¥­ €¬¥à¨ª ­áª®£® ¨ ¢à®¯¥©áª®£® ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ®¡é¥áâ¢. ‘®á⮨⠢ ।ª®««¥£¨ïå ¦ãà­ «®¢: ‘¨¡¨à᪨© ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª¨© ¦ãà­ «, Mathematica Japonica, Positivity, Siberian Advances in Mathematics ¨ ¤à.

Ž£« ¢«¥­¨¥
1. Š®¬ã ¤à¥á®¢ ­ë í⨠ᮢ¥âë? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. —â® ¯¥à¥¢®¤¨âì? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. ‚ è £« ¢­ ï § ¤ ç | ¯¥à¥¤ âì á®®¡é¥­¨¥ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Œ â¥à¨ï ¯¥à¢¨ç­ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. ˆ¬¥©â¥ ¢ ¢¨¤ã ¯à ¢¨« . • «¬®è . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. Š ª à ¡®â âì ­ ¤ ¯¥à¥¢®¤®¬? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7. ®¬­¨â¥ à §«¨ç¨ï ­£«¨©áª®£® ¨ àãá᪮£® ï§ëª®¢ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8. ‚ ¬ ­ã¦­ë å®à®è¨© á«®¢ àì ¨ ®¡à §¥æ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9. ‚ ¬ ¯®«¥§¥­ ã祡­¨ª ­£«¨©áª®© £à ¬¬ ⨪¨ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
10. „®«®© ¡¥áá¬ë᫨æë . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11. “¬®«ç ­¨¥ | ®â«¨ç­ë© ¯à¨¥¬ ¯¥à¥¢®¤ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
12. ˆ§¡¥£ ©â¥ ।ª¨å á«®¢ ¨ â®­ª¨å £à ¬¬ â¨ç¥áª¨å ª®­áâàãªæ¨© 37
13. ¥ ¨§®¡à¥â ©â¥ ª®««®ª 権 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
14. ¥ ¯ã⠩⥠`British English' ¨ \American English" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
15. ‘«¥¤¨â¥ § ª« áá¨ä¨ª 樥© áãé¥á⢨⥫ì­ëå . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
16. Un-, In- ¨«¨ Non-? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
17. ¥à¥¤ ‚ ¬¨ «ìâ¥à­ ⨢ : Lemmas ¨«¨ Lemmata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
18. ¥ § ¡ë¢ ©â¥ à⨪«¨ ¨ ¤à㣨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¨â¥«¨ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
19. ‘§ ¤¨ ¨«¨ ᯥ।¨? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
20. à ¢¨«ì­® ¯®¤¡¨à ©â¥ Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
21. ‚ ¬ ¯à¨£®¤¨âáï áâàãªâãà­ ï ª« áá¨ä¨ª æ¨ï £« £®«®¢ . . . . . . . . . 70
22. “ ‚ á ¥áâì ®á­®¢ ­¨ï ¨§¡¥£ âì Continuous Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
23. Žáâ¥à¥£ ©â¥áì Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
24. Š ª ¯à¥¢à â¨âì £¥àã­¤¨©-¤«ï-á¥¡ï ¢ £¥àã­¤¨©-¢-ᥡ¥? . . . . . . . . . 84
25. ‚ è¨ ®¡áâ®ï⥫ìá⢠âॡãîâ ¢­¨¬ ­¨ï . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26. \There Are" Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
27. Žâ­®á¨â¥áì ª á«®¦­ë¬ ¯à¥¤«®¦¥­¨ï¬ á¥à쥧­® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
28. Š ª ¡ëâì á ý¥á«¨ (¡ë)þ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
29. €­£«¨©áª¨© ⥪áâ á àãá᪮© ¯ã­ªâã 樥© ¡¥§®¡à §¥­ . . . . . . . . . . 110
30. ’à㤭®á⨠¤®¯®«­¥­¨ï . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31. ®«ì§ã©â¥áì ४®¬¥­¤ æ¨ï¬¨ ‘. ƒ®ã«¤ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
32. Ž¡¤ã¬ ©â¥ ᮢ¥âë . • ©¥¬ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
33. â® ¢®§¬®¦­® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Appendix 1. Name List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Appendix 2. Mottoes, Dicta, and Cliches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Appendix 3. Miscellany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Appendix 4. Verb Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Appendix 5. Diculties in Complementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
‹¨â¥à âãà . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
à¥¤¬¥â­ë© 㪠§ ⥫ì . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

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